1. Copyright © 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. 1

2. Copyright © 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. 2  The normal function of the human body is compared to an organized machine  The machine malfunctions, disease occurs  Anatomy: study of form and structure  Physiology: study of processes  Pathophysiology: study of how disease occurs and body’s response

3. Copyright © 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. 3  Four basic properties of life: › Reception  The ability of the organism to control its actions and respond to changes in the environment › Metabolism  The process of taking in and using nutrients to produce energy and growth › Reproduction  The ability to reproduce offspring to continue the species › Organization  How the organism is divided into distinct parts to perform these functions

4. Copyright © 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. 4  Body structures are organized on five levels: › Cells  The smallest units of life › Tissues  Combinations of similar cells › Organs  Collections of tissues working together to perform a function › A body system  Consists of organs that work together to provide a major body function › An organism  Being that results when the body systems work together to maintain life

5. Copyright © 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. 5  Basic substance of life  Made of ordinary elements (e.g., carbon, oxygen, hydrogen)  Scientists can combine these elements, but not create life

6. Copyright © 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. 6  Major structures of a cell are called organelles › Nucleus  Controls activity of the cell  Directs reproduction › Cytoplasm  Semifluid material that surrounds cell parts  Transports chemicals and nutrients within the cell › Mitochondria  Produces the energy used for cellular processes › Cell membrane  Surrounds the cell  Controls which substances enter and leave the cell

7. Copyright © 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. 7 › Lysosomes  Helps break down, or digest, molecules › Ribosomes  Attached to the endoplasmic reticulum  Work to produce protein for the cell structures › Golgi apparatus  Makes glycoproteins, which help transport proteins made by the ribosomes out of the cell

8. Copyright © 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. 8

9. Copyright © 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. 9  Asexual reproduction process used by most cells  Different types of cells reproduce at different rates  Process of mitosis—see Figure 9-9 in text

10. Copyright © 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. 10  Protoplasm is basic substance of life  Protoplasm forms structural units called cells  Cells combine to form tissue  Tissues combine to form organs  Organs and other parts combine to form systems  Systems work together to create miracle of human body

11. Copyright © 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. 11  The tendency of a cell or the whole organism to maintain a state of balance › Generally refers to maintaining constancy of the “internal milieu” or fluid surrounding cells of the organisms  Composition of the tissue fluid that makes up internal environment is kept constant  Molecules pass in and out of the cell to maintain balance

12. Copyright © 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. 12  Physiological components of homeostasis or state of balance:  Body temperature  Gas exchange  pH values  Water and ion balance  Volume and pressure of fluid  Waste removal  Nutrient intake

13. Copyright © 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. 13

14. Copyright © 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. 14  Electrolytes are compounds made of charged particles called ions › Ions can conduct electrical current in water or in cytoplasm of cell  Positive charge (cation) creates an acid  Negative charge (anion) creates a base  Different electrolytes also have special functions

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16. Copyright © 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. 16 › pH of a fluid is a measurement of how much acid or base is present  Each tissue has a normal pH  Cells do not function properly if normal pH is not maintained for that area of the body

17. Copyright © 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. 17

18. Copyright © 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. 18  Four main groups of tissue: › Epithelial tissue  Covers the body, forms glands, and lines the surfaces of cavities and organs › Connective tissue  Formed by a protein, includes soft tissue such as fat and blood cells and hard tissues such as bones, ligaments, and cartilage

19. Copyright © 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. 19 › Muscle tissue  Made of protein fibers, has the unique property of shortening to produce movement › Nervous tissue  Composed largely of specialized cells called neurons

20. Copyright © 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. 20  Physiology is the study of the functions of the body  Body system › Group of related organs  Body systems together accomplish functions necessary to maintain and support life  There are 12 body systems

21. Copyright © 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. 21  Integumentary system covers the body and protects other body systems  Cardiovascular system transports oxygen and nutrients to all body parts and removes waste products  Circulatory system includes the blood and lymph that move throughout the body  Respiratory system exchanges gases between the air and blood

22. Copyright © 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. 22  Muscular system allows the body to move and controls movements within the body  Skeletal system provides body support and protection  Digestive system processes food and eliminates food waste  Urinary system filters the blood and removes liquid wastes

23. Copyright © 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. 23  Endocrine system coordinates body cavities through hormones  Nervous system regulates the environment and directs the activities of other body systems  Sensory system perceives the environment and sends messages to and from the brain  Reproductive system provides for human reproduction

24. Copyright © 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. 24  Standard position of the body used to describe the location of the anatomy › Person is in an erect standing position  Mouth closed  Eyes and head facing forward  Feet slightly apart with toes facing forward  Arms are close to the body and the palms are facing forward with fingers extended

25. Copyright © 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. 25

26. Copyright © 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. 26  Directional orientation explains a particular view of a person. Medial refers to the middle of the body. Lateral refers to the sides of the body. Superior, or cephalic, refers to a location near the head. Inferior, or caudal, refers to a location near the feet. Anterior, or ventral, refers to the front of the human body. Posterior, or dorsal, refers to the back of the human body.

27. Copyright © 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. 27  Directional planes are views of imaginary lines sliced through a person. A sagittal section slices the body vertically into left and right sections. A midsagittal section slices the body into equal left and right halves. A frontal, or coronal, section slices the body vertically into anterior and posterior sections. A transverse section slices the body horizontally into inferior and superior sections.

28. Copyright © 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. 28  Planes are used to describe the body › Three planes:  Coronal or frontal  Separates the front and back of the body  Transverse  Divides the upper and lower body  Sagittal  Divides the body into right and left sides

29. Copyright © 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. 29

30. Copyright © 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. 30 › Location of organs is described in relation to these planes:  Inferior (below)  Superior (above)  Medial (close to)  Lateral (away from)  Anterior or ventral (in front of)  Posterior or dorsal (behind)  Other terms used to a point where one organ attaches to another  Proximal (close to)  Distal (away from)

31. Copyright © 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. 31  Five body cavities: › Thoracic  Contains lungs, heart, esophagus, trachea, and major blood vessels › Abdominal  Contains stomach, gallbladder, pancreas, intestines, liver, spleen, adrenal glands, and kidneys › Pelvic  Contains reproductive organs, bladder, and rectum › Cranial  Contains the brain, ventricles, and some glands › Spinal  Houses the spinal cord and nerves

32. Copyright © 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. 32

33. Copyright © 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. 33  Abdominal and pelvic cavities are described in terms of regions › Nine regions:  Right hypochondriac  Epigastric  Left hypochondriac  Right lumbar  Umbilical  Left lumbar  Right inguinal  Hypogastric  Left inguinal

34. Copyright © 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. 34

35. Copyright © 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. 35  Four quadrants: › Right upper › Right lower › Left upper › Left lower

36. Copyright © 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. 36  Cell reproduction › Mitosis is the process by which a cell divides to reproduce, creating an identical replica with the same chromosomes  Each cell (except gametes) contains 46 chromosomes  All chromosomes (except sex chromosome x and y) are paired and called homologous autosomes  Heredity › Heredity is the passing on of genetic information that determines the characteristics of an individual person

37. Copyright © 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. 37  Meiosis › Cell divides into two parts with only one half of the chromosomes › Part of the reproduction process › Results in the formation of sex cell (gametes)  Fertilization is the combination of two gametes with chromosomes from different parents into one cell  Offspring inherits any abnormal gene found on the chromosome of either parent

38. Copyright © 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. 38  Heredity › Heredity is the passing on of genetic information that determines the characteristics of an individual person › Genes contain the hereditary information in the cell  Made up of protein chains in a molecule called DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)

39. Copyright © 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. 39  Chromosomes › Threadlike strands of DNA › Contain between 50,000 and 100,000 genes  Genotype  Configuration of genetic information in the chromosomes  Phenotype  Trait or appearance that results from the genotype  Dominant gene  Recessive gene

40. Copyright © 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. 40  Homozygous  Two genes alike on the chromosome pair  Heterozygous  Two genes that are different on the chromosome pair › Genetic information carried on all chromosomes is responsible for  The development of all body cells  Formation of tissues, organs, and body systems

41. Copyright © 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. 41  Genetic disorders › Abnormal genes or chromosomes cause many disorders  Cancer › The uncontrolled growth of abnormal cells that tend to spread (metastasize) and invade the tissue around them

42. Copyright © 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. 42  Genetic engineering › 3,000+ disorders are known to result from genetic abnormalities › Advanced techniques and procedures can now identify abnormal genes in the unborn fetus  Chorionic villus sampling  Preimplantation diagnosis  Gene splicing

43. Copyright © 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. 43  Cancer treatments › Immunotherapy  Involves using:  Chemicals that are isolated from bacteria infected with the cancer  Killed suspensions of bacteria  Biological substances that harm tumors:  Interferon  Interleukin  Tumor necrosis factors  Growth factors

44. Copyright © 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. 44  Cancer treatments › Lasers  Destroy cancerous cells  Photodynamic therapy (fiberoptic technology) › Hyperthermia (increase in temperature)  Used in combination with radiation to treat some tumors