1. CHAPTER 9 BODY ORGANIZATION

2. Anatomy and Physiology
Four basic properties of life:
Reception
The ability of the organism to control its actions and respond to changes in the environment
Metabolism
The process of taking in and using nutrients to produce energy and growth
Reproduction
The ability to reproduce offspring to continue the species
Organization
How the organism is divided into distinct parts to perform these functions

3. Anatomy Body structures are organized on five levels: Cells Tissues
The smallest units of life
Tissues
Combinations of similar cells
Organs
Collections of tissues working together to perform a function
A body system
Consists of organs that work together to provide a major body function
An organism
Being that results when the body systems work together to maintain life

4. Cell Structure Major structures of a cell are called organelles
Nucleus
Controls activity of the cell
Directs reproduction
Cytoplasm
Semifluid material that surrounds cell parts
Transports chemicals and nutrients within the cell
Mitochondria
Produces the energy used for cellular processes
Cell membrane
Surrounds the cell
Controls which substances enter and leave the cell

5. Cell Structure (Continued)
Lysosomes
Helps break down, or digest, molecules
Ribosomes
Attached to the endoplasmic reticulum
Work to produce protein for the cell structures
Golgi apparatus
Makes glycoproteins, which help transport proteins made by the ribosomes out of the cell

6. Figure 9-1 Cell Structure (Continued)

7. Homeostasis
The tendency of a cell or the whole organism to maintain a state of balance
Generally refers to maintaining constancy of the “internal milieu” or fluid surrounding cells of the organisms
Composition of the tissue fluid that makes up internal environment is kept constant
Molecules pass in and out of the cell to maintain balance

8. Homeostasis (Continued)
Physiological components of homeostasis or state of balance:
Body temperature
Gas exchange
pH values
Water and ion balance
Volume and pressure of fluid
Waste removal
Nutrient intake

9. Table 9-1 Homeostasis and Body Systems

10. Electrolytes
Electrolytes are compounds made of charged particles called ions
Ions can conduct electrical current in water or in cytoplasm of cell
Positive charge (cation) creates an acid
Negative charge (anion) creates a base
Different electrolytes also have special functions

11. Table 9-2 Electrolytes of the Body

12. pH pH of a fluid is a measurement of how much acid or base is present
Each tissue has a normal pH
Cells do not function properly if normal pH is not maintained for that area of the body

13. pH of the Body

14. Tissue Types Four main groups of tissue: Epithelial tissue
Covers the body, forms glands, and lines the surfaces of cavities and organs
Connective tissue
Formed by a protein, includes soft tissue such as fat and blood cells and hard tissues such as bones, ligaments, and cartilage

15. Tissue Types (Continued)
Muscle tissue
Made of protein fibers, has the unique property of shortening to produce movement
Nervous tissue
Composed largely of specialized cells called neurons

16. Body Systems Physiology is the study of the functions of the body
Group of related organs
Body systems together accomplish functions necessary to maintain and support life
There are 12 body systems

17. Body Systems (Continued)
Integumentary system covers the body and protects other body systems
Cardiovascular system transports oxygen and nutrients to all body parts and removes waste products
Circulatory system includes the blood and lymph that move throughout the body
Respiratory system exchanges gases between the air and blood

18. Body Systems (Continued)
Muscular system allows the body to move and controls movements within the body
Skeletal system provides body support and protection
Digestive system processes food and eliminates food waste
Urinary system filters the blood and removes liquid wastes

19. Body Systems (Continued)
Endocrine system coordinates body cavities through hormones
Nervous system regulates the environment and directs the activities of other body systems
Sensory system perceives the environment and sends messages to and from the brain
Reproductive system provides for human reproduction

20. Anatomical Position
Standard position of the body used to describe the location of the anatomy
Person is in an erect standing position
Mouth closed
Eyes and head facing forward
Feet slightly apart with toes facing forward
Arms are close to the body and the palms are facing forward with fingers extended

21. Figure 9-4 Anatomical Position (Continued)

22. Body Planes Planes are used to describe the body Three planes:
Coronal or frontal
Separates the front and back of the body
Transverse
Divides the upper and lower body
Sagittal
Divides the body into right and left sides

23. Body Planes (Continued)
Location of organs is described in relation to these planes:
Inferior (below)
Superior (above)
Medial (close to)
Lateral (away from)
Anterior or ventral (in front of)
Posterior or dorsal (behind)
Other terms used to a point where one organ attaches to another
Proximal (close to)
Distal (away from)

24. Figure 9-5 Body Planes (Continued)

25. Body Cavities Five body cavities: Thoracic Abdominal Pelvic Cranial
Contains lungs, heart, esophagus, trachea, and major blood vessels
Abdominal
Contains stomach, gallbladder, pancreas, intestines, liver, spleen, adrenal glands, and kidneys
Pelvic
Contains reproductive organs, bladder, and rectum
Cranial
Contains the brain, ventricles, and some glands
Spinal
Houses the spinal cord and nerves

26. Figure 9-6 Body Cavities (Continued)

27. Figure 9-7 Body Regions
Abdominal and pelvic cavities are described in terms of regions
Nine regions:
Right hypochondriac
Epigastric
Left hypochondriac
Right lumbar
Umbilical
Left lumbar
Right inguinal
Hypogastric
Left inguinal

28. Figure 9-7 Body Regions

29. Abdominal Quadrants Four quadrants: Right upper Right lower Left upper
Left lower

30. Figure 9-8 Abdominal Quadrants (Continued)

31. Cell Function Cell reproduction Heredity
Mitosis is the process by which a cell divides to reproduce, creating an identical replica with the same chromosomes
Each cell (except gametes) contains 46 chromosomes
All chromosomes (except sex chromosome x and y) are paired and called homologous autosomes
Heredity
Heredity is the passing on of genetic information that determines the characteristics of an individual person

32. Cell Function (Continued)
Meiosis
Cell divides into two parts with only one half of the chromosomes
Part of the reproduction process
Results in the formation of sex cell (gametes)
Fertilization is the combination of two gametes with chromosomes from different parents into one cell
Offspring inherits any abnormal gene found on the chromosome of either parent

33. Cell Function (Continued)
Heredity
Heredity is the passing on of genetic information that determines the characteristics of an individual person
Genes contain the hereditary information in the cell
Made up of protein chains in a molecule called DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)

34. Cell Function (Continued)
Chromosomes
Threadlike strands of DNA
Contain between 50,000 and 100,000 genes
Genotype
Configuration of genetic information in the chromosomes
Phenotype
Trait or appearance that results from the genotype
Dominant gene
Recessive gene

35. Cell Function (Continued)
Homozygous
Two genes alike on the chromosome pair
Heterozygous
Two genes that are different on the chromosome pair
Genetic information carried on all chromosomes is responsible for
The development of all body cells
Formation of tissues, organs, and body systems

36. Cell Formation Diseases
Genetic disorders
Abnormal genes or chromosomes cause many disorders
Cancer
The uncontrolled growth of abnormal cells that tend to spread (metastasize) and invade the tissue around them

37. Issues and Innovations
Genetic engineering
3,000+ disorders are known to result from genetic abnormalities
Advanced techniques and procedures can now identify abnormal genes in the unborn fetus
Chorionic villus sampling
Preimplantation diagnosis
Gene splicing

38. Issues and Innovations (Continued)
Cancer treatments
Immunotherapy
Involves using:
Chemicals that are isolated from bacteria infected with the cancer
Killed suspensions of bacteria
Biological substances that harm tumors:
Interferon
Interleukin
Tumor necrosis factors
Growth factors

39. Issues and Innovations (Continued)
Cancer treatments
Lasers
Destroy cancerous cells
Photodynamic therapy (fiberoptic technology)
Hyperthermia (increase in temperature)
Used in combination with radiation to treat some tumors