2. Factors facilitating military modernization -Many government leaders had been commanders of the clan forces before 1868. They had experienced military encounters with the West, and they had fought the civil war that led to the 1868 Restoration. Besides, it was their military forces that gave the new government its main military support. Logically, therefore, they favoured military reforms. -Effective political centralization should be backed up by the creation of national armies. So military reform was necessary

3. -In the early 1870s, military modernization was carried out for the sake of defending Japan both against any possible foreign military threats and against any domestic rebellions or disorder. -After the 1890s, however, attention was more and more concentrated on Japan's ability to fight and win a foreign offensive war and to acquire imperialist interests overseas.

4. Conscription Law of 1873 - It was only after the introduction of the Conscription Law in 1873 that a truly national army began to take shape. -According to the law, all Japanese males over 23 years old were required to serve a 7-year military service in the regular army, with 4 more years in the reserve.

5. -Yamagata Aritomo, the Meiji leader responsible for military modernization, was fearful that the new national army was disloyal. He thus made efforts to reorganize the army: Reorganization of army after 1878

6. - The new army had been based on the French model, army organization was now on German lines. Stricter discipline and tighter administrative control were introduced. A General Staff was created to advise the Emperor on military matters - a job that formerly belonged to the civil officials (non-military officials). As the General Staff could directly approach the Emperor, civil control of the military was lost. - The new army had been based on the French model, army organization was now on German lines. Stricter discipline and tighter administrative control were introduced. A General Staff was created to advise the Emperor on military matters - a job that formerly belonged to the civil officials (non-military officials). As the General Staff could directly approach the Emperor, civil control of the military was lost.

7. Japanese soldiers in French uniforms. Later, Japan’s military reforms copied Germany

8. -By 1894, Japan would have 200,000 soldiers in case there should be war. -Meanwhile, military colleges were founded, and a Staff College was set up for greater specialization of military functions. -Expenditure on the army rose sharply. -the 1873 Conscription Law was revised so that the periods of military service were extended.

9. -The organization of the navy was based on the British system. -In 1872, a Navy Ministry was formed. Both Japanese-built and foreign-bought ships were added to the Japanese fleet. Efforts were to made to build up the navy

10. -By 1894, the fleet already had 28 modern ships, together with many torpedo boats. -Dockyard facilities were also modernized. -By 1894, the fleet already had 28 modern ships, together with many torpedo boats. -Dockyard facilities were also modernized.

11. Effects of Military reform: A. Political effects -Strengthening of the Meiji state -Beginning of demand for more political rights in society -The authoritarian military independent of civil control B. Economic effects -Demand for military-related industries -Introduction of Western knowledge

12. -Destruction of localism -Increased political consciousness of the people -Expansion in education -Promotion of militant Japanese nationalism C. Social effects