2. Rails Biology, Ecology, and Management

3. Classification Kingdom Animalia Phylum Chordata Class Aves Order Gruiformes Family Rallidae Coturnicops Laterallus Rallus Aramides Porzana Cyanolimnas Pardirallus

4. Characteristics of Family Small to medium-sized waterbirds Shy, mostly solitary Laterally compressed bodies Bill varies, usually slightly decurved Short tail

5. Species of the Family Coturnicops noveboracensis Laterallus jamaicensis Rallus longirostris Rallus elegans Rallus limicola Aramides axillaris Aramides cajanea Porzana palmeri Porzana carolina Porzana sandwichensis Cyanolimnas cerverai Pardirallus maculatus Yellow Rail Black Rail Clapper Rail King Rail Virginia Rail Rufous-necked Wood-Rail Gray-necked Wood-Rail Laysan Rail Sora Hawaiian Rail Zapata Rail Spotted Rail

6. Two Extinct Rails Porzana palmeri Laysan Rail Porzana sandwichensis Hawaiian Rail

7. Rails of Kentucky There are 4 found in Kentucky! Coturnicops noveboracensis Yellow Rail Rallus elegans *King Rail Rallus limicola Virginia Rail Porzana carolina Sora *Argued whether found in Kentucky or not.

8. Sora Porzana carolina

9. Breeding Range of Sora

10. Wintering Range

11. Identification Length: 6.75 inches Wingspan: 12.5 inches Body is small and chunky Short-tail which is cocked during walk and shows white undertail coverts Wings are rounded Ground-dwelling Short thick, yellow bill Rarely flies Sexes similar Black face mask

12. Habitat and Foraging The sora occupies a freshwater wetland habitat throughout its range; it also uses salt marshes while overwintering. The preferred habitat provides considerable cover for breeding soras, and consists mostly of freshwater wetlands with stands of cattail, sedges, and other tall wetland plants. Diet consists mainly of seeds, insects and snails.

13. Breeding Nests are woven into a shallow basket from dead emergent wetland vegetation, and attached to stalks of dense, live vegetation. Nests are generally placed over or adjacent to water, occasionally occurring in dry environments such as willows or grassy habitat near water's edge. The average clutch size ranges from 10-12 (sometimes 6-18) brown, spotted eggs, occasionally laid in two layers to accommodate such large numbers in a relatively small nest. Incubation by both parents lasts from 18-20 days, and is initiated with the laying of the first few eggs. Young hatch asynchronously due to incremental stages of incubation. Young soras leave the nest shortly after hatching, and mainly forage themselves, having been taught by a parent. At 21-25 days young soras fledge and gain independence from their parents' care.

14. Management Concerns Due to loss of wetland habitat, sora’s range has declined. Although population is considered abundant, further depletion of wetlands is a threat.

15. Management Wetland loss and degradation should be avoided. Long-term protection of wetlands. Wetland complexes would allow for variation of water levels and therefore is recommended. Protection of mudflats, sandbars, and meadows where soras forage.

16. Virginia Rail Rallus limicola

17. Breeding Range of Virginia Rail

18. Wintering Range

19. Identification Length: 7.5 inches Wingspan: 14 inches Fairly small chunky body Short-tailed Round-winged Ground-dwelling Long, slightly decurved bill Rarely flies Sexes similar Red eyes

20. Habitat and Foraging Rails prefer freshwater marshes and wetlands. The most important features of their habitat include shallow water, an emergent cover of cattails and bulrushes, and a high invertebrate abundance in the water. They forage in standing water, moist soil, and mudflats. Using its long, curved bill, the Virginia Rail probes the muddy soils and shallow waters of its habitat for food. It most often consumes small aquatic invertebrates, such as beetles, spiders, snails, and true bugs. In the winter, when these foods are less available, it also eats aquatic plants and seeds.

21. Breeding Pairs are thought to be monogamous. Either males or females may initiate bond formation, which spans a period of one or two weeks. During this time, pairs engage in mutual preening, courtship feeding, copulation, and defense of territory. Nests are built in May. Both the male and female build the nest, which is located in marshes containing cattails and bulrushes. A canopy is often built above the nest by bending and weaving adjacent vegetation. Along with the nest, numerous "dummy" nests are built within their territory. Clutch size varies greatly with geography, but the average size seems to be 8-9 eggs. Both sexes incubate, and the young hatch about 19 days after incubation begins. Young are covered with black down and development progresses rapidly; young begin to run down the nest ramp to drink and swim only 11 hours after hatching.

22. Management Concerns Degradation of its wetland habitat may have caused a decrease in populations. Although populations are considered stable, this is not really known due to the fact that not a lot of research has been done on this species.

23. Management Protection of wetlands is important. Since they like shallow waters, water manipulation is beneficial. The management of wetlands helps to manage birds.

24. Yellow Rail Coturnicops noveboracensis

25. Breeding Range of Yellow Rail

26. Wintering Range Not much is known about wintering range of this species.

27. Identification Length: 5 inches Small, chunky body. Short-tailed Round-winged, Ground-dwelling White secondaries Short, thick, yellow bill Black upperparts with thin white fringes and broad buffy streaks Dark crown, yellow supercilium, and dark eyeline Breast buffy yellow Flanks and undertail coverts barred black and white Rarely flies Sexes similar

28. Habitat and Foraging Yellow Rails prefer moist areas, with little or no standing water. Their preferred summer habitat includes marshy areas with low ground cover, grassy flood plains, wet meadows, and bog areas with low vegetation. During migration, they stop over in rice fields, dry hay fields or cereal fields. In winter, the birds can be found in coastal marshes and rice fields. Eats on fruits and seeds.

29. Breeding Nest usually constructed in dense clump of marsh grasses or fallen or dead grasses often a few inches above flooded soil or bottom just touching. Cup nest is woven from fine dry grasses, some sedge. Clutch size = 7-10 eggs, rich yellow-buff color, usually speckled or densely spotted at large end with red-brown Incubation, presumed by female alone, approx. 18 days. Incubation begins with last egg. Young are precocial, covered with black down, and possess a 'wing claw' on the manus facilitating movement through dense vegetation

30. Management Concerns Degradation of habitat due to draining of wetlands. Thickening of sedges and other vegetation may reduce the reproduction due to lack of adequate nesting sites.

31. Management Protection of wetlands. Periodic burnings to thin out vegetation so that adequate nesting sites are available.