1. Psychological Resources for Healthy Longevity Cross-Sectional Analyses of Subjective Well-Being in the Chinese Longitudinal Healthy Longevity Study (CLHLS) Jacqui SmithDenis Gerstorf Max Planck Institute for Human Development, Berlin Li Qiang Institute of Population Research, Peking University

2. A Psychological Approach to Healthy Longevity Psychological resources linked to sustaining subjective well-being contribute to: survival in very old age Psychological resources underlie behavior, decision- making, and adaptation to social losses, physical illness, disability, and functional impairment psychological health Older individuals high in psychological resources that maximize positive well-being and protect against or minimize negative well-being function well in everyday life and can age with dignity Smith, Gerstorf & Li, 2004

3. Why Do We Consider Two Sides of Well-Being? Smith, Gerstorf & Li, 2004 Subjective well-being is multifaceted. Different psychological processes and outcomes are linked to the positive and negative components. Positive Side of Well-Being e.g., happiness, hope, contentment, trust, interest - processes that maintain, broaden, and build - outcomes: vitality, everyday competence, autonomy, enhanced immune system Negative Side of Well-Being e.g., sadness, worry, anger, fear, boredom - processes of lethargy, flight, or fight - outcomes: chronic stress, depression, isolation, physiological dysfunction

4. Resources for Well-Being: Optimal vs. Less-Functional Minimize Negative Maximize Positive Yes No x No x x Optimal A well-functioning (healthy) psychological system is characterized by an integrated balance of psychological resources that maximize positive well-being and minimize negative well-being Smith, Gerstorf & Li, 2004

5. Psychological Measures Included in the CLHLS Estimates of Resource Potential for Well-Being Potential to Maximize Positive Well-Being (4 items, 5-point response scale) Optimism Do you always look on the bright side of things? Conscientiousness Do you like to keep your belongings neat and clean? Personal Control Can you make your own decisions about your personal affairs? Happiness Are you just as happy now as when you were younger? Potential to Minimize Negative Well-Being (3 items, 5-point response scale) Note: To estimate these resources we reverse coded all item responses. Low Neuroticism Do you often feel fearful or anxious? Low Loneliness Do you often feel lonely and isolated? High Self-Worth Do you feel that the older you get, the more useless you are? Smith, Gerstorf & Li, 2004

6. Optimism Conscientiousness Sense of Personal Control Happiness Lo Neuroticism Lo Loneliness High Self-Worth.62.74.81.70.63.46.79.62.51.43.55.61.73.46.33 RMSEA =.054 NFI =.95 Structure of Resources For Positive and Against Negative Well-Being T1:1998 N = 8805 Positive Lack of Negative (.21) Note: Differences in item format 1998 - 2000 did not alter the factor structure significantly. Smith, Gerstorf & Li, 2004

7. Analytic Strategy Cross-Sectional Analyses (Baseline, 1998) Focus on selectivity analyses and age cohort comparisons of responses to well-being items If psychological resources for well-being contribute to healthy longevity:  Survivors in the 2-year longitudinal sample > mortality dropouts  Centenarians more positively selected for psychological resources than octogenarians  Minimal age cohort differences in the 2-year longitudinal sample at baseline assessment  Beyond age: cognitive fitness and engagement in life activities should be related to individual differences in potential for well-being Smith, Gerstorf & Li, 2004

8. 2-Year Longitudinal "Survivor" Sample at 1998 The 2-year CLHLS sample (N = 4691) Missing psychological data 3% - 7% at T1; 9% to 15% at T2 Missings primarily due to poor hearing, vision, cognitive impairment We used N = 4006 complete longitudinal psychological data (1998 & 2000) Mean age = 89.3 years; 56% women 80 - 89 M = 84 years 90 - 99 M = 94 years 100 - 105 M = 101 years N22391216551 % Women515581 % City433824 % No school education576783 % No Spouse698797 % Poor hearing21018 % Poor vision71223 Self-rated health (max= 5)3.7 Life satisfaction (max = 5)3.9 MMSE (max = 23)201816 Word Fluency (foods)1197 Smith, Gerstorf & Li, 2004

9. % High on Resources for Positive Well-Being 87% Conscientiousness 80% Optimism 64% Personal Control 53% Happiness % High on Resources Against Negative Well-Being 76% Low Neuroticism 72% Low Loneliness 41% High Self-Worth Note. High = % responding that item is a "good / very good" description of themselves. Smith, Gerstorf & Li, 2004 Evidence for Psychological Aspects of Healthy Longevity (1) Participants in CLHLS 2-year longitudinal sample had a high potential for well-being (N = 4006)

10. Effect Sizes in SD units 1.0 0.5 Positive Resources Negative Resources Conscientiousness Optimism Control Happiness Lo Neuroticism Lo Loneliness Hi Self-Worth Smith, Gerstorf & Li, 2004 Evidence for Psychological Aspects of Healthy Longevity (2) At Baseline (1998), the 2-year Longitudinal Survivors (N = 4006) had a Higher Potential for Well-Being than the "Dropouts” (N = 4114) Substantial Effects for Resources linked to Positive Well-Being

11. Effect Sizes in SD units 1.0 0.5 Positive Resources Negative Resources Conscientiousness Optimism Control Happiness Lo Neuroticism Lo Loneliness Hi Self-Worth Smith, Gerstorf & Li, 2004 Evidence for Psychological Aspects of Healthy Longevity (2) At Baseline (1998), the 2-year Longitudinal Survivors (N = 4006) had a Higher Potential for Well-Being than the "Dropouts” (N = 4114) Substantial Effects for Resources linked to Positive Well-Being

12. Effect Sizes in SD units Positive Resources Negative Resources 1.00.5 80 - 84 85 - 89 90 - 94 95 - 99 100+ 80 - 84 85 - 89 90 - 94 95 - 99 100+ Within Age Cohort Comparisons 2-year Longitudinal Participants (N = 4006) vs. "Mortality Dropouts” (N = 4114) Smith, Gerstorf & Li, 2004 Evidence for Psychological Aspects of Healthy Longevity (3) At Baseline (1998), the Potential for Well-Being was Higher in the Older Age Cohorts (Positive Selectivity Effect)

13. Profile of Well-Being Resources: Majority Were Optimal Resources against Negative Resources for Positive Yes No 9% No 20% 7% 64% A well-functioning (healthy) psychological system is characterized by an integrated balance of psychological resources that maximize positive well-being and minimize negative well-being Smith, Gerstorf & Li, 2004

14. 80 - 8485 - 8990 - 9495 - 99100+ 1 2 3 4 5 Always Sometimes Never Often Describes me.... Seldom Conscientiousness Optimism Control Happiness Neuroticism Loneliness Self-Worth Smith, Gerstorf & Li, 2004 Evidence for Psychological Aspects of Healthy Longevity (4) Minimal Age Cohort Differences in Psychological Resources At Baseline (1998) in the 2-year Longitudinal Sample Note however that individual differences were substantial at all ages

15. 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 80859095100105 Optimism Conscientiousness Personal Control Happiness Neuroticism Loneliness Self-Worth Gerstorf, Li, & Smith 2004 Age 2000 - Age 2002 Describes me... Often Sometimes Seldom Well-Being Was Relatively High…..But This CLHLS sample was positively selected for well-being Change in the negative side of well-being may be death-related

16. Gerstorf, Li, & Smith 2004 Well-Being Was Relatively High…..But There were substantial individual differences in amount and direction of change in well-being e.g., some individual change trajectories in cognitively fit centenarians Age 2000 - Age 2002

17. Regression analyses predicting change revealed:  Age cohort effects eliminated if analyses restricted to cognitively fit participants (n = 855)  After partialing out level of well-being at 2000, cognitive fitness, engagement in life activities, social context (number of living children) and living in the city uniquely attenuated change in the positive side of well-being (R 2 = 7%)  After partialing out level of well-being at 2000, only gender uniquely attenuated change in the negative side of well-being (R 2 = 2%): Women changed more than men Moderators of 2-Year Change in Well-Being Gerstorf, Li, & Smith 2004

18. For Positive Well-BeingAgainst Negative Well-Being Being a woman / Rural – – –– Cognitive fitness ++++ Social integration ++ Functional Health – ++ Engagement in activity +++ Self-rated Health +++ R 2 21.5910.17 Note. Final model in a step-wise regression analysis (N = 4006). “+” indicates positive relation between predictors and outcome variable; “–” indicates negative relation. “+” p<0.05; “++” p<0.01; “+++” p<0.001; “–” p<0.05; “– –” p<0.01; “– – –” p<0.001. Smith, Gerstorf & Li, 2004 Predictors of Individual Differences in Potential for Well-Being Unique predictors after age variance was partialed

19. Survivors in the 2-year longitudinal sample > mortality dropouts This finding needs to be followed-up with survival analyses  Centenarians were more positively selected for psychological resources than 80-year-olds Resources for positive well-being may be especially sensitive indicators of the potential for healthy longevity in old age  Minimal age cohort differences in the 2-year longitudinal sample at baseline assessment This is contrary to expectations given negative age differences in physical health, disability and functional impairment  Potential for well-being is multidimensional and integrated with cognitive fitness, engagement in life activities, and social context Psychological Resources for Well-Being are Associated with Healthy Longevity Smith, Gerstorf & Li, 2004