1. The Changes of the 19 th Century

2. Romanticism  Artistic and intellectual movement of the late 18 th and early 19 th century.  Reaction to strict focus on reason of the Enlightenment with a strong focus on emotion and intuition.  Romanticism also strongly connected to ideas of nationalism, individualism, and the natural world.

3. Romanticism  Literature  Germany –Johann Wolfgang von Goethe –Friedrich von Schiller –Jakob and Wilhelm Grimm  France –Honore de Balzac –Alexander Dumas –Victor Hugo Victor Hugo

4. Romanticism  Literature  Britain –William Wordsworth –Samuel Taylor Coleridge –Lord Byron –Percy Bysshe Shelley –John Keats –William Blake –Alfred Lord Tennyson –Robert Browning –Sir Walter Scott Lord Byron

5. Romanticism  Painting –Eugene Delacroix –Francisco Goya –J.M.W. Turner –John Constable –Camille Corot Goya

6. Eugene Delacroix- Liberty Leading the People

7. Goya - Third of May, 1808

8. Turner – Burning of the Houses of Parliament

9. Romanticism  Architecture –Exotic influences from Middle East and China –Neoclassicism of 18 th century remained popular –Neo-Gothic style became popular.

10. Romanticism  Music –Ludwig von Beethoven  Led transition from classical to romantic –Richard Wagner  German nationalist operas –Giuseppe Verdi –Giacomo Puccini –Franz Liszt  Piano works based on Hungarian folk music –Frederic Chopin Richard Wagner Richard Wagner

11. Romanticism  Philosophy –Immanuel Kant  Led revolt against extreme rationalism.  Critique of Pure Reason (1781)  Metaphysics – understanding of the supernatural. –G.W.F. Hegel  History represented God’s plan for the world.  Based on dialectical conflict (thesis, antithesis, synthesis) Immanuel Kant

12. Conservatism  Political ideology that developed in the late 18 th century.  Defended established social and political order of Europe as natural.  Conservatism questioned the possibilities of radical change.  British MP Edmund Burke was its most vocal advocate. Edmund Burke

13. Classical Liberalism  Associated with ideas of social progress, economic development, and individualism that emerged in the Enlightenment.  Closely associated with middle class values and concerns.  Generally advocated political reforms, but also promoted an orderly society.  In this way, it was often limited in scope and not concerned for the needs of the masses.

14. Political Liberalism  Political liberalism was based on the ideas of John Locke, Voltaire and other philosophes of the 18 th century.  Political liberalism called for greater individual rights, religious freedom, freedom of the press, property rights, representative government (at least for the middle class, not “democracy”)

15. Economic Liberalism  Based mostly on laissez-faire ideas of Adam Smith and other economists.  Markets should be as free from government intervention as possible.  Thomas Malthus –An Essay on the Principle of Population (1798) –Population growth would outstrip food.  David Ricardo –“Iron Law of Wages” – labor based on supply and demand

16. Utilitarianism and Socialism  As the 19 th century progressed, more and more politicians, economists and philosophers began to see that conservatism and liberalism were not serving the needs of the developing industrial society.  They began to theorize about alternative systems that would bring about a better society.

17. Utilitarianism  Jeremy Bentham –Argued that gov’t sometimes needed to intervene on behave of the oppressed. –Every human practice should be valued in terms of its utility (happiness). –Individual freedom with the benefits for the most (welfare state)

18. Utilitarianism  John Stuart Mill –Further evolution of liberal doctrine away from laissez-faire. –Strong advocate of women’s rights. –Supported formation of labor unions, progressive taxes, universal suffrage, and child labor restrictions.

19. Socialism  Utopian Socialism –Socialists of the early 19 th century did not have a coherent ideology, but different ideas put forth. –Common to most were the ideas of the abolition of private property (either owned by the state of by groups of workers. –And the need to educate workers to cooperate as apposed to compete.

20. Socialism  Robert Owen –Textile entrepreneur who advocated socialist ideas. –Put workers rights and wages into action at New Lanark, Scotland. –Began socialist New Harmony community in Indiana in 1826. –New Harmony failed and he returned to England

21. Socialism  Count of Saint-Simon –French socialist who believed that government should focus on improving economic conditions. –Society should be directed by an educated elite, providing for the equal benefit of all.

22. Socialism  Charles Fourier –Advocated the establishment of socialist communities known as phalanxes (small workers communities) –Each person would share in each other's work to avoid boredom.

23. Socialism  Louis Blanc –Published The Organization of Work (1840) calling for universal manhood suffrage and the creation of a workers party. –The worker’s would eventually control the government and establish socialist workshops, pushing private industries out of business.

24. The Socialist Critique  Utilitarian and especially socialist writers and thinkers began to criticize the assertions of liberal capitalist society, especially in dealing with the condition of workers.  More and more of these ideas would filter into the mainstream political discourse.  At the same time, conservatives were also critical, but from a more traditional and paternalistic perspective.  As the century progressed, conservatism became more associated with the aristocracy, liberalism with the bourgeoisie, and socialism with the working class.

25. The Modern Political Continuum Classical Liberalism Conservatism Utilitarianism/ Progressivism Royalist Socialism Marxist Communism Fascism Totalitarianism Stalinism LEFTRIGHT MORE FREEDOM LESS FREEDOM CENTER EXTREME MORE EQUAL LESS EQUAL

26. Civil Unrest in Great Britain  Postwar economic depression led to civil unrest in Britain.  Lord Liverpool, a Tory, served as prime minister of a reactionary government.  Aug, 1819 – Protesters gathered in St. Peter’s Field, Manchester were attacked by Government troops. Eleven people were killed in what became know as the Peterloo Massacre. Peterloo Massacre, 1819

27. Conservative Reaction  The Six Acts –Reaction to the Peterloo Massacre, passed by Parliament in Dec. 1819. –Restricted freedom of speech press, and assembly, allowed for searches of homes.  Cato Street Conspiracy –January 1820, George IV (r. 1820-1830) succeeded to the throne. –Government uncovered a plot to kill the entire cabinet and the king. –Conspirators were arrested and executed.

28. Tory Reforms  Younger Tory leaders began to push for reforms in the 1820s.  Robert Peel, the home secretary, reformed criminal codes and reorganized the police (bobbies)  Free trade policies put in place by reducing tariffs on imports.  Religious restrictions removed. –Test Act Repealed in 1828 –Catholic Emancipation passed in 1829. Robert Peel

29. Reform Bill of 1832  Whigs won the election of 1830, replacing the Tory government of the Duke of Wellington.  PM Earl Grey introduced electoral reform.  It was blocked two times by the House of Lords.  Passed with threat of adding Whig peers to the House of Lords by king William IV (r. 1830 – 1837).

30. Reform Bill of 1832  Eliminated 56 “rotten boroughs” and “pocket boroughs” and redistributed their 111 seats, 32 smaller ones lost one of two seats in the House of Commons.  The bill lowered property qualifications to include most middle class men, expanding the electorate by 800,000 men. Earl Grey

31. Reforms Expand  In 1833, slavery was abolished throughout the British Empire.  Factory Act of 1833 placed restrictions of child labor. –Those under age 9 could not work in mills. –9 to 13 work 9 hours, 13 to 18 could work 12 hrs  Municipal Corporations Act of 1835 created town councils.

32. Repeal of the Corn Laws  Anti-Corn Law League (est. 1839) campaigned for repeal of Corn Laws (tariffs on grains)  Adopted in 1815, the laws provided protection for landowners by inflating prices.  Middle class reformers argued that elimination of tariffs would lower grain prices, helping the workers and industrialists.  Under pressure of the Peelites (splitting the Tories) and the effects of the Irish Famine, the Corn Laws were repealed in 1846.

33. The Chartist Movement  Agitation continued for further reform and the creation of the People’s Charter in 1838 by a group of working class leaders.  Demands centered on: 1.Universal Manhood Suffrage 2.Secret Ballot in Voting 3.End of Property requirements to office 4.Salaries for MPs. 5.Creation of Equal Electoral Districts 6.Annual Elections for the House of Commons.  Presented demands to Parliament in 1839. They were ignored. Agitation continued through 1848.

34. France – The Bourbon Restoration  Under Louis XVIII (r. 1814-1824) the Charter of 1814 created a constitutional monarchy. –Two house parliament created (on British model) –Guarantees of civil liberties –Napoleonic Code remained in effect  Ultra-Royalists, under the leadership of the king’s brother, the Count of Artois, won elections in 1820 and reduced civil liberties.

35. France – The Bourbon Restoration  In 1824, the Count of Artois succeeded his brother as King Charles X.  He angered the bourgeoisie by lowering the interest on government bonds to compensate the nobility for the lands they had lost.  Liberals and moderate royalists gained control in elections in 1827.  In response, Charles X made the reactionary Prince of Polignac premier Charles X

36. Revolutions of 1830 - France  The July Revolution –Liberals won elections in May 1830. –In response, Charles and Polignac enacted the Four Ordinances which imposed limitations on freedom of the press, dissolved the Parliament and scheduled new elections. –On July 27-29, the people of Paris rose in revolt against the king. –Charles X fled to Great Britain.

37. Revolutions of 1830 - France  The July Monarchy –Some revolutionaries favored creating a republic, but liberals in the Chamber of Deputies supported a constitutional monarchy. –They proclaimed Louis Philippe, Duke of Orleans, as king –King Louis Philippe (r. 1830-1848) cultivated a bourgeois image as “citizen king.” –His economic and political policies favored the interests of the middle class. King Louis Philippe

38. Revolutions of 1830 - Europe  Belgium –Catholics and liberals take opportunity to gain independence from Dutch. –Constitutional monarchy created.  Switzerland –Swiss cantons more toward more liberal representative governments.  Spain –Conflicts between the Carlists and the monarchy led to expansion of liberal ideas, though reform was difficult to maintain

39. The Aristocracy  Consisted of traditional landholders as well and the upper gentry.  Challenged by the new industrial wealth of the middle classes (only some aristocrats become capitalists.)  They still controlled most of the important positions of power in government and most of the wealth in the nation.

40. The Middle Class  Confident and assertive group of the 19 th century.  Bankers, industrialists, professionals, and “white collar” workers.  Strongly opposed aristocratic privilege.  Middle class values of hard work, self reliance, temperance, and the patriarchal family permeate all levels of society.

41. Artisans and Skilled Labor  Most independent of any of the classes in their work and position.  Elimination of the guild system opened new free market possibilities.  Skill laborers faced competition from machines, but often learned to work with them.  Led labor movements with successful strikes despite labor unions being illegal.

42. The Working Class  Consisted of mostly unskilled wage laborers in the masses who move to the cities.  More than half the workers in factories are women and a quarter are children do to lower wages and their ability to be intimidated.  Faced dangerous working conditions.  Harsh discipline used by factory managers.  Often lived in slum conditions. Women miners in Wales

43. The Peasants  Still the largest class in most of Europe in the early 19 th century (Britain one exception).  Position changes dramatically with the end of feudal obligations after the French Revolution and Napoleonic Wars.  Entering the free marked ended many protections brought by feudal obligations (some succeed as farmers, others forced into wage labor on large farms or in cities.)