1. Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Cognition and Language Chapter 7B

2. Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Building Blocks of Thought Language A flexible system of symbols that enables us to communicate our ideas, thoughts, and feelings Nonhumans communicate primarily through signs Human language is semantic, or meaningful It is also characterized by displacement in that it is not limited to the here-and-now

3. Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Structure of Language Phonemes Basic sounds (ph, t) Morphemes smallest meaning unit (words, prefixes) Surface structure Phrases of sentence Deep structure Underlying meaning of a sentence Grammar Rules of how sounds combine

4. Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Building Blocks of Thought Images Nonverbal mental representations of sensory experiences Concepts Mental categories for classifying people, objects, or experiences Prototype Mental model containing the most typical features of a concept

5. Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Language, Thought, and Culture

6. Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Language and Cognition Linguistic determinism Idea that patterns of thinking are determined by the specific language one speaks Research only mildly supports the idea

7. Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Culture and Cognition All known cultures use categories to form concepts Culture has an effect on What information is included in a category How categories are shaped by experience

8. Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Nonhuman Thought and Language Animal cognition Animals can form concepts Apes have demonstrated sophisticated problem-solving skills Chimpanzees and orangutans show signs of self-awareness

9. Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Nonhuman Thought and Language The question of language Chimpanzees have been taught to use American Sign Language Chimpanzees have been observed using telegraphic speech (two-word combinations) Some chimps have learned to use keyboard symbols to communicate even without formal training

10. Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Problem Solving Steps Problem representation Interpreting or defining the problem Deciding what category a problem belongs to Selecting a solution strategy Evaluating progress toward goal

11. Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Possible Solution Strategies Trial and error Works best with limited number of choices Information retrieval Retrieve from memory information about how such a problem has been solved in the past Algorithms Step-by-step methods that guarantees a solution Math problems are an example of the type best solved using an algorithm Heuristics Rules of thumb that may help simplify a problem, but do not guarantee a solution

12. Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Heuristic Methods Hill climbing Move progressively closer to goal without moving backward Subgoals Break large problem into smaller, more manageable ones, each of which is easier to solve than the whole problem Means-end analysis Aims to reduce the discrepancy between the current situation and the desired goal at a number of intermediate points Working backward Work backward from the desired goal to the existing condition

13. Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Obstacles to Solving Problems Motivation Desire to solve a problem Mental sets Tendency to perceive and approach problems in certain ways Functional fixedness Tendency to see only a limited number of uses for an object

14. Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Creative Problem Solving Brainstorming Produces many ideas Very popular in business Ideas are not judged when generated The creative process People often become more creative when exposed to creative peers

15. Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Becoming a More Skillful Problem Solver Eliminate poor choices Visualize a solution Develop expertise Think flexibly

16. Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Decision Making Decision making is a special case of problem solving in which possible solutions or choices are already known Logical decision making Compensatory model Rational decision-making model in which choices are systematically evaluated on various criteria Example: buying a car Good when issues are well-defined

17. Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Decision-Making Heuristics Heuristic processes are used when decisions involve a high degree of ambiguity Representativeness heuristic New information is compared to our model of the typical member of a category (prototype) Availability heuristic Decision is based on information that is most easily retrieved from memory, even if incomplete Confirmation bias Tendency to notice evidence that supports our beliefs and to ignore evidence that contradicts them

18. Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Framing How information is presented (or framed) can have an effect on the outcome of decision-making Research has demonstrated that framing can have very dramatic effects on decision-making

19. Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Decisions Under Pressure When decisions are required quickly, experience plays a key role With increased pressure in an emergency situation, decision making often deteriorates and can end in panic

20. Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Explaining Our Decisions Hindsight bias Tendency to view the outcomes of decisions as inevitable and predictable after we know the outcome Counterfactual thinking Thinking about alternative realities and things that never happened Often takes the form of “If only…” constructions dealing with causes and consequences