1. Evolution and Population Genetics
Evidence for evolutionary change
Mechanics and
Hardy-Weinberg Calculations

2. Evidence for Evolution
1. Fossil record.
Material imprinted in rock
Law of superposition: older fossils on bottom
2. Anatomical evidence
Homologous structures: similar bone structure but different function. Ex: bat wing, whale flipper, human arm
Vestigial structures: no longer functional but retained in anatomy Ex: appendix, wisdom teeth
Modified structures: adapted for new function Ex: Panda’s “thumb” = wrist bones modified to strip leaves from bamboo
Embryologic similarities
3. Molecular evidence
Shared sequences of bases in DNA

3. Evidence for evolution (continued)
Adaptive radiation
Ancestral pioneer arrives at new habitat.
New species evolve = speciation
By occupying different niches, they reduce competition.
Example: Darwin’s finches – 13 different but related species on the Galapagos Islands

4. Fossils
Archaeopteryx
(oldest known
fossil bird)

5. LAW OF SUPERPOSITION
Rule of thumb: youngest rocks are deposited on top of older ones. Plate tectonics can move layers so they are no longer horizontal.

6. Why does a whale have a kneecap?

8. Panda’s have modified wrist bone which serves as a thumb to help it strip leaves from bamboo plants.

10. The Evolution of Populations
Remember individual organisms do not evolve. Individuals are selected, but it is populations that evolve.
Because evolution occurs when gene pools change from one generation to the next, understanding evolution require us to understand population genetics.

11. Some terminology
Population: All the members of one species living in single area.
Gene pool: the collection of genes in a population. It includes all the alleles of all genes in the population.

12. Some terminology
If all individuals in a population all have the same allele for a particular gene that allele is said to be fixed in the population.
If there are 2 or more alleles for a given gene in the population then individuals may be either homozygous or heterozygous (i.e. have two copies of one allele or have two different alleles)

13. Detecting evolution in nature
Evolution is defined as changes in the structure of gene pools from one generation to the next.
How can we tell if the gene pool changes from one generation to the next?
We can make use of a simple calculation called the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium

14. Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium
In meiosis, individuals alleles are sorted into gametes (sperm or egg) which may combine to form a zygote.
A population of 100 organisms has a minimum of 200 alleles for each trait, one from each parent.
To determine probability of two independent events (sorting of parental alleles), multiply the probabilities of individual events.
If 80% of the alleles in a gene pool are “A” and 20% are “a”, what are the probabilities for each genotype (AA, Aa, and aa)?

15. Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium
If 80% of the alleles in the gene pool are A and 20% are a, we can predict the genotypes in the next generation.
Basic probability: To determine the probability of two independent events both occurring, you should multiply the probabilities of the individual events together.

16. Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium
Probability of an AA individual is 0.8*0.8 = 0.64
Probability of an aa individual is 0.2*0.2 = 0.04
Probability of an Aa individuals is 0.2*0.8 = 0.16, but there are two ways to produce an Aa individual so 0.16*2= 0.32.
Note the probabilities add up to 1 (100%)

17. Genotypic frequencies:
General formulae
Allele frequencies:
p + q = 1.
Genotypic frequencies:
p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1, where p is frequency of one allele and q is frequency of the other allele. NOTE: p2 and q2 are homozygous and pq is heterozygous

18. Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium
Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium can be used to estimate allele frequencies from information about phenotypes and genotypes.

19. Hardy-Weinberg Conditions
No gene flow: movement of individuals to/from the population
Random mating: no significant preference when choosing mate. Increases homozygote genotype.
Large population size: reduce effect of small, chance events (genetic drift: bottleneck or founder effect)
No natural selection which would otherwise select for or against a particular genotype.
No mutations.

20. Bottleneck Effect
The bottleneck effect occurs when some disaster causes a dramatic reduction in population size.
As a result, by chance certain alleles may be overrepresented in the survivors, while others are underrepresented or eliminated. Genetic drift while the population is small may lead to further loss or fixation of alleles.
Humans have been responsible for many bottlenecks by driving species close to extinction.

21. Bottleneck Effect
The Northern Elephant seal population for example was reduced to about 20 individuals in the 1890’s. Population now >30,000, but an examination of 24 genes found no variation, i.e. there was only one allele. Southern Elephant Seals in contrast show lots of genetic variation.

22. 23.8

23. Founder Effect
Populations founded by only a few individuals (ex: island communities)
Gene pool is unlikely to be as diverse as the source pool from which it was derived.
Example: polydactylism (having extra fingers) is common among the Amish
Founder effect coupled with inbreeding explains the high incidences of certain recessive diseases among humans in many isolated island communities.

24. Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium
If a population is found to depart significantly from Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium this is strong evidence that evolution is taking place.

25. Natural Selection the primary mechanism of adaptive evolution
“survival of the fittest” means individuals reproduce thus contributing genes to the next generation
May depend on differences in ability to gather food, hide from predators, or tolerate extreme temperatures, which all may enhance survival and ultimately reproduction

26. Natural Selection the primary mechanism of adaptive evolution
Three major forms of natural selection:
Directional
Disruptive
Stabilizing

28. Directional Selection
Favors one extreme in the population
Average value in population moves in that direction
E.g. Selection for darker fur color in an area where the background rocks are dark

29. Disruptive selection
Intermediate forms are selected against. Extremes are favored
E.g. Pipilo dardanus butterflies. Different forms of the species mimic the coloration of different distasteful butterflies.
Crosses between forms are poor mimics and so are selected against by being eaten by birds.

30. Stabilizing Selection
Most common
Extreme forms are selected against
Example: Human birth weights. Highest survival is at intermediate birth weights.
Babies that are too large cannot fit through the birth canal, babies that are born too small are not well developed enough to survive