1. The Sun Internal structure of the Sun Nuclear fusion –Protons, neutrons, electrons, neutrinos –Fusion reactions –Lifetime of the Sun Transport of energy in the sun –Radiation versus convection The atmosphere of the Sun Demos: 8B10.35, 4B20.10

2. The Sun

5. Properties of the Sun Mass = 2  10 30 kg Radius = 696,000 km Luminosity = 3.8  10 26 W Age = 4.6 billion years Surface temperature = 5,800 K Composition: 70% H, 28% He, 2% other

6. Properties of the Sun

7. Could chemical reactions power the Sun? But the Sun is about 4.6 billion years old.

8. Could gravitational contraction power the Sun? Better, but still off by a factor of 100.

9. Nuclear burning

10. Elementary particles Protons (orange) – found in nuclei, positive charge Neutrons (blue) – found in nuclei, no charge Electrons (e - ) – orbit nuclei, negative charge Photons (  ) – particles of light (gamma-rays) Positrons (  + ) – anti-matter electrons, positive charge (e + in book) Neutrinos ( ) – `ghost particles’, no charge, can easily pass through normal matter

11. Convert proton to neutron To convert a proton to a neutron A positron (  + ) and a neutrino ( ) must be produced and released

12. Make nuclei out of protons and neutrons 1 H = normal hydrogen nucleus = proton 2 H = deuterium hydrogen nucleus (unstable) = proton plus neutron (in heavy water) 3 He = light helium nucleus (unstable( = two protons plus one neutron 4 He = normal helium nucleus = two protons plus two neutrons

13. Nuclear burning

14. 4(1H)  He 4 + energy + 2 neutrinos M H = 1.673  10 -27 kg M He = 6.645  10 -27 kg Rate of fusion reactions is: Our Sun converts 4  10 9 kg of matter into energy each second.

15. Nuclear burning Total energy available is: Lifetime is:

16. Internal Structure of the Sun We want to make a model of the Sun, what do we need to know?

17. Gas in the Sun is in hydrostatic equilibrium

18. Fish in water are in hydrostatic equilibrium

19. Transport of energy through the radiative zone Photons produced via fusion scatter many times in the Sun’s dense interior - a “random walk”.

20. Random Walk In one dimension, a random walk can be thought of as tossing a coin: if heads then go left, if tails then go right. Coin tosses follow the binomial distribution. For large numbers of tosses, the distribution becomes the `normal’ distribution. The average total distance traveled for n steps of length l is:

21. Random Walk The same formula holds in 2 and 3 dimensions. For the Sun, the average distance between collisions is about l = 1 mm. Photons travel at the speed of light, so the time between collisions is t = l/c = 10 -3 m /(3  10 8 m/s) = 3  10 -12 s The radius of the Sun is L = 7  10 8 m. The average number of collisions before a photon escapes is n = (L/l) 2 = (7  10 8 m/ 10 -3 m) 2 = 5  10 23 The average photon stays in the Sun for a time T = tn = (3  10 -12 s)(5  10 23 ) = 1.5  10 12 s = 50,000 years A more accurate estimate gives 120,000 years

22. Q: A drunken pirate takes a 0.2 m randomly oriented step each second. He starts at the center of a small island of radius 20 m. On average, how long will it take before he steps into the ocean? 1.20 sec 2.100 sec 3.1000 sec 4.10,000 sec 5.100,000 sec

23. Internal Structure of the Sun

24. Convective zone

25. Do the following transport energy by convection or radiation? 1.A gas oven 2.A microwave 3.A heat lamp 4.An electric radiator

26. Internal Structure of the Sun Equation of hydrostatic equilibrium Equation of mass continuity Equation of state Equations of energy production and transport

27. Internal Structure of the Sun

28. How do we know? Core temperature 15,600,000 K, density 150  water Surface temperature 5800 K, average density 1.4  water

29. How can we check if fusion really powers the Sun

30. Test fusion hypothesis by looking for neutrinos Neutrinos are only produced in nuclear reactions. Ray Davis shared the 2002 Nobel prize in Physics for originally detecting neutrinos from the Sun.

31. The Solar Neutrino Problem Neutrinos are detected, but only at 1/3 the rate expected. Solution - Neutrinos change ‘flavor’ as they transit from sun to Earth, from electron neutrinos, to tau (  ) and muon (μ) neutrinos:

32. We see oscillations on the surface of the Sun

33. The surface of the Sun vibrates up and down in oscillations which can go deep through the Sun. We can observe these oscillations from Earth by looking at the Doppler shifts of different pieces of the Sun. Helioseismology is a way to probe the Sun’s interior using the Sun’s own vibrations.

34. Waves inside the Sun The pattern of waves on the surface is determined by the conditions deep inside the Sun.

35. What direct observational evidence supports the model of thermonuclear reactions in the Sun’s core? 1.Neutrinos 2.Gamma rays 3.Sun spot counts 4.WMD inspections

36. The Sun’s Atmosphere Photosphere - the 5800 K layer we see. Chromosphere – a thin layer, a few 1000 km thick, at a temperature of about 10,000 K. Can be seen during solar eclipse. Corona – Outermost layer, 1,000,000 km thick, at a temperature of about 1,000,000 K.

37. Outer layers of sun 1 = photosphere, 2 = chromosphere, 3 = corona Why the outer layers of the Sun’s atmosphere are hotter is a puzzle.

38. Photosphere

39. Chromosphere

40. Corona

42. Limb darkening

44. Sun spots are about 4000 K (2000 K cooler than solar surface) and have magnetic fields up 1000  the normal solar magnetic field. They can be as large as 50,000 km and last for many months. Sunspots are low temperature regions in the photosphere

45. Particles spiral around magnetic field lines Magnetic field Motion of charged particle (electron, proton, nucleus)

46. The large magnetic fields in sunspots decrease the flow of heat via convection causing the sunspot to become cool. Sunspots are low temperature regions in the photosphere

47. Sunspot cycle

48. Sunspots can be used to measure the rotation of the Sun Near the equator the Sun rotates once in 25 days. The poles rotate more slowly, about once every 36 days.

49. Sunspot cycle Each 11 years, the Sun’s magnetic field changes direction. Overall cycle is 22 years.

50. Granulation

51. Which statement is not correct? 1.The solar coronal temperature is about 10 6 K. 2.Sunspots are very cool and dark, with temperatures of about 300 K. 3.The Sun’s core has a temperature about 10 7 K. 4.The chromosphere is hotter than the photosphere.

52. Solar magnetic fields also create other phenomena Prominences Flares Solar wind Coronal mass ejections

53. Particles spiral around magnetic field lines Magnetic field Motion of charged particle (electron, proton, nucleus) Particles, that we see, get trapped along magnetic field lines, that we don’t see, stretching out from the Sun.

54. Prominences - Cooler than photosphere.

55. Solar flares - Hotter, up to 40,000,000 K More energetic

56. Coronal mass ejections - eruption of gas, can reach Earth and affect aurora, satellites Movie

57. Coronal mass ejection Movie

58. Aurora

59. Review Questions 1.How long could the Sun continue to burn H at its current luminosity? 2.What is produced in the fusion of H to He? 3.If the radius of the Sun were doubled, how much longer would it take photons produced in the Sun’s core to escape? 4.What is the connection between sunspots and the Sun’s magnetic field? 5.What is the sunspot cycle?