1. Absolutism and Constitutionalism, ca. 1589–1725

2. I. Seventeenth-Century Crisis and Rebuilding
A. Peasant Life in the Midst of Economic Crisis
1. The Textures of Village Life
2. Diet
3. Economic Crisis
B. The Return of Serfdom in the East
1. Erosion of Peasant Liberties
2. The Legal System
3. Growth of Commercial Agriculture
I. Seventeenth-Century Crisis and Rebuilding
A. Peasant Life in the Midst of Economic Crisis
1. The Textures of Village Life — (Which was centered on the church and a manor) — independent farmers (leaders of the peasant village who employed the landless poor and rented out livestock and tools), small landowners, and tenant farmers (did not own enough land to be self-sufficient), rural workers (dependent laborers and servants).
2. Diet — Peasants lived on the edge of subsistence — peasant diets consisted of bread, soup and, on very rare occasions, pork.
3. Economic Crisis — The colder and wetter climate of the “Little Ice Age” led to bad harvests, food shortages, famine, and diseases brought on by malnutrition and exhaustion — led to economic difficulties (as food prices soared and wages stagnated), urban riots and attacks on grain convoys in rural areas (often led by women).
B. The Return of Serfdom in the East
1. Erosion of Peasant Liberties — Peasant lords dealt with labor shortages caused by the Black Death by restricting the right of their peasants to move. In Prussia, runaway peasants were required to be returned to their lords, and the lords imposed heavier labor obligations (peasant in some regions were required to work 6 days a week for the lords).
2. The Legal System — The local lord was also the local prosecutor, judge, and jailer — no independent royal officials to provide justice or uphold the common law. Peasants required permission to marry or could be forced to marry.
3. Growth of Commercial Agriculture — Eastern lords squeezed surpluses out of their peasants and sold their grain directly to the growing cities of Western Europe (particularly to the Netherlands and in England), bypassing local towns, which declined in size and importance.

3. I. Seventeenth-Century Crisis and Rebuilding
C. The Thirty Years’ War (1618–1648)
1. Tensions in the Holy Roman Empire
2. Four Phases of the War
3. Peace of Westphalia (1648)
Belligerents
Protestant States and Allies
Sweden Sweden (from 1630), France (from 1635), Denmark Denmark-Norway (1625–1629), Bohemia Bohemia (1618–1620), United Provinces, Saxony, Electoral Palatinate (until 1623), Brandenburg-Prussia, Brunswick-Lüneburg, England (1625–30), Transylvania , Hungarian Anti-Habsburg Rebels, Zaporozhian Cossacks, Ottoman Empire
Roman Catholic States and Allies
Holy Roman Empire, Catholic League, Habsburg Monarchy Austria, Bohemia Bohemia (after 1620), Spain Spanish Empire, Flag of the Habsburg Monarchy.svg Hungary[4], Flag of the Kingdom of Croatia (Habsburg).svg Kingdom of Croatia[5], Denmark Denmark-Norway (1643–1645)[6]
I. Seventeenth-Century Crisis and Rebuilding
C. The Thirty Years’ War (1618–1648)
1. Tensions in the Holy Roman Empire — (The Peace of Augsburg brought about an uneasy peace between the hundreds of Catholic and Protestant states, dynastic tensions existed between local princes and the Spanish and Austrian Habsburgs.)
2. Four Phases of the War
a. Bohemian Phase (1618–1625) —Civil war in Bohemia between the Catholic League and the Protestant League led to Protestant defeats at the Battle of the White Mountain.
b. Danish Phase (1625–1629) — Additional and impressive Catholic victories, particularly in Pomerania, Silesia, and the Baltic.
c. Swedish Phase (1630–1635) — Began in Germany with the arrival of the Swedish king, Gustavus Adolphus (r. 1594–1632) and his army, who intervened to support the empire’s Protestants and were supported by the French who wanted to weaken the Habsburgs.
d. French Phase (1635–1648) — The French declared war on Spain.
3. Peace of Westphalia (1648) — Finally ended the most destructive conflict in Europe until the world wars of the 20th century (1/3 of urban residents and 2/5 of rural population died) — the treaty recognized the independent authority of more than 300 German princes and limited the emperor’s limited authority and added Calvinism to Catholicism and Lutheranism as an acceptable creed.

5. I. Seventeenth-Century Crisis and Rebuilding
D. Achievements in State-Building
1. Common Goals Between “Absolutist Governments” (France, Spain, Central Europe, Russia) and “Constitutional Governments” (England, Dutch Republic)
2. Obstacles
3. Growth of Central Authority and State Sovereignty
I. Seventeenth-Century Crisis and Rebuilding
D. Achievements in State-Building
1. Common Goals Between “Absolutist Governments” (France, Spain, Central Europe, Russia) and “Constitutional Governments” (England, Dutch Republic) — Protect and expand frontiers, raise new taxes, consolidate central control, and compete for colonies.
2. Obstacles — Delays in communication (because of no paved roads, telephones, or modern technology), lack of information about the realms, local power structures (nobles, the church, provincial assemblies, guilds, town councils), local languages.
3. Growth of Central Authority and State Sovereignty — In taxation, armed forces, bureaucracies, and in compelling obedience from subjects.

6. I. Seventeenth-Century Crisis and Rebuilding
E. Warfare and the Growth
of Army Size
1. Monarchical Control
2. Professionalism
3. Growth in Army Size
F. Popular Political Action
1. Popular Revolts
2. Urban Uprisings in France
I. Seventeenth-Century Crisis and Rebuilding
E. Warfare and the Growth of Army Size
1. Monarchical Control — Medieval armies had been raised by feudal lords, while in the 17th century, monarchs recruited and maintained armies, deploying them inside and outside the country.
2. Professionalism — oOfficers were to be loyal to their monarchs, and new techniques for training and deploying soldiers were introduced.
3. Growth in Army Size — The French army grew from nearly 125,000 men in Thirty Years’ War to 340,000 at the end of the 17th century. Reasons for this: a larger army was needed to fight on multiple fronts and the relative size and wealth of France and other absolutist states allowed for military growth.
F. Popular Political Action
1. Popular Revolts — In England, France, Spain, Portugal, and Italy (often over food shortages).
2. Urban Uprisings in France — Driven by deep popular anger at outside officials sent to collect royal taxes.

7. II. Absolutism in France and Spain
A. The Foundations of Absolutism
1. Henry IV (r. 1589–1610)
2. Cardinal Richelieu (1585–1642)
3. Cardinal Jules Mazarin (1602–1661)
4. The Fronde (1648–1653)
B. Louis XIV (r. 1643–1715) and Absolutism
1. Divine Right of Kings
2. Louis’s Rule
3. Repression of Protestants
4. Limits on Louis’s Power
II. Absolutism in France and Spain
A. The Foundations of Absolutism
1. Henry IV (r. 1589–1610) — Founded the Bourbon Dynasty, kept France at peace for his reign in part by granting the Edict of Nantes, lowered taxes, and improved the infrastructure.
2. Cardinal Richelieu (1585–1642) — The first minister of the crown during the reign of Louis XIII (r. 1610–1643) who took power when he was 9 years old — developed a royal system of administration, he extended the use of intendants who supervised tax collections, recruited men for the army, presided over local administration, checked up on the nobility, and regulated local economic activities, he repressed Protestantism (laid siege successfully to the Protestant stronghold of La Rochelle), and he weakened the catholic Habsburgs’ grip on power in the territories surrounding France.
3. Cardinal Jules Mazarin (1602–1661) — Continued Richelieu’s centralizing powers and increased taxes.
4. The Fronde (1648–1653) — An uprising against royal authority by various groups opposed to the new autocratic measures, and in particular, by various groups of city-dwellers and nobles, including those in the Parlement of Paris.
B. Louis XIV (r. 1643–1715) and Absolutism
1. Divine Right of Kings — A doctrine according to which God divinely anointed kings as his rulers, and they were answerable to him alone. But they had to obey God’s laws and rule for the good of the people.
2. Louis’s Rule — Ruled through several councils of state, selected councilors from the recently ennobled or upper middle class, never summoned the Estates General (leaving the nobility without a voice) and never appointed a first minister.
3. Repression of Protestants — Revoked the Edict of Nantes (1685), forcing Huguenots to convert, leave or face persecution.
4. Limits on Louis’s Power — Had to uphold laws of his predecessors, relied on the collaboration of nobles (whose support his needed to wage his many foreign wars), and had to rule in a way seemingly consistent with virtue.

8. Have students discuss this image and how Louis XIV used art to promote French absolutism.
1. How do you know this is a king?
(Answers: he has a crown and a scepter, and an ermine cloak.)
2. How do you know this is a king of France?
(Answer: his cloak and chair are decorated with the symbol of the French monarchy, the fleur-de-lis.)
3. How does this painting use the traditional European symbols of royal authority?
(Answers: the sword is present, but less prominent than in medieval and Renaissance art. The crown is present, but in the background. He wears a cross, but it is not obvious. The emphasis in on the person and majesty of the king himself.)
4. Why might these traditional symbols receive less emphasis?
(Answers: in medieval European kingship, a king’s authority often rested on the support of the nobles and the church. By downplaying those symbols, Louis is showing that his authority could not be questioned by nobles or church. Power and authority were his alone.)

9. II. Absolutism in France and Spain
C. Life at Versailles
1. Nobility
2. Daily Life
3. Patronage and Privileges
D. French Financial Management Under Colbert (1619–1683)
1. Mercantilism
2. Colbert’s Policies
3. Mercantilism Abroad
II. Absolutism in France and Spain
C. Life at Versailles
1. Nobility — The great nobility was required to live in Versailles so that the king could keep an eye on its activities.
2. Daily Life — In spite of the glamour, daily life was mundane — a bureaucratic headquarters, living quarters for the royal family, and a place for work for domestic servants (cramped living space, noise, crowds).
3. Patronage and Privileges — The king’s daily rituals — nobles were required to assist the king in waking up, dressing him, retiring at night — served as a way to bestow honors and positions and control the nobility. Women played an important role in this patronage system. The King also served as a patron of the arts, and French culture became the language of polite society, culture, and international diplomacy.
D. French Financial Management Under Colbert (1619–1683)
1. Mercantilism — A collection of governmental policies for the regulation of economic activities for and by the state — it was derived from the idea that a nation’s international power is based on its wealth and supply of gold and silver. A nation, therefore, had to sell more goods abroad than it purchased. This was the policy of the controller general, Jean-Baptiste Colbert, a financial genius.
2. Colbert’s Policies — New production regulations, guilds to boost quality standards, abolition of domestic tariffs, tariffs on foreign products, no massive tax increases at home.
3. Mercantilism Abroad — Colbert founded the Company of the East Indies to compete with the Dutch, he sent colonists to Québec, and claimed for the French crown regions that the French explored (the Mississippi, Louisiana).

10. II. Absolutism in France and Spain
E. Louis XIV’s Wars (for 33 of 54 years of his personal rule)
1. Marquis de Louvois
2. Conquests
3. Defeats
4. Financing the Wars
F. The Decline of Absolutist Spain in the Seventeenth Century
1. Decline in Trade
2. Fiscal Crisis and Economic Ruin
3. Military Defeats
II. Absolutism in France and Spain
E. Louis XIV’s Wars (for 33 of 54 years of his personal rule)
1. Marquis de Louvois — Secretary of state for war — created a professional army in which the French state, not private nobles, employed the standards.
2. Conquests — In the Spanish Netherlands, Flanders, Strasbourg, Lorraine.
3. Defeats — The War of the Spanish Succession (1701–1713) — France was pitted against the Grand Alliance of the English, Dutch, Austrians, Prussians. In the Peace of Utrecht, it lost Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, and the Hudson Bay Territory to England.
4. Financing the Wars — Required desperate measures including devaluating the currency and new taxes. By 1715, France was on the brink of bankruptcy.
F. The Decline of Absolutist Spain in the Seventeenth Century
1. Decline in Trade — Between 1610 and 1650 trade with the New World colonies fell by 60 percent because of English and Dutch competition, disease by native Indian and African slaves in the silver mines, and the exhaustion of the mines.
2. Fiscal Crisis and Economic Ruin — The Spanish Crown devalued the currency, declared bankruptcy, expelled 300,000 Moriscos (former Muslims, many of whom were skilled workers and merchants). The middle class was tiny, the elite looked down at moneymaking, and the number of unproductive monasteries was extremely high. Aristocrats increased the rents on their estates, the state raised taxes, and peasants fled the land.
3. Military Defeats — The Duke of Olivares — an able administrator who believed that the solutions to Spain’s problems lay in a return to the imperial successes of preceding centuries. The Thirty Years’ War, defeat at the hands of the French in 1653, the independence of Portugal (1688) — signaled the end of Spanish dominance.

12. III. Absolutism in Austria and Prussia
A. The Austrian Habsburgs
1. Consolidation at Home
2. Bohemia
3. Hungary
B. Prussia in the Seventeenth Century
1. Hohenzollerns
2. Junkers
3. The Absolutist Solution
III. Absolutism in Austria and Prussia
A. The Austrian Habsburgs
1. Consolidation at Home — The Habsburgs emerged from the Thirty Years’ War exhausted and impoverished: real power lay in the hands of many separate political jurisdictions. The Habsburgs focused inward and eastward to unify their holdings.
2. Bohemia — The Habsburgs reduced the power of the Bohemian Estates, the largely Protestant representative assembly, stamped out Protestantism, and worsened the condition of the enserfed peasantry.
3. Hungary — Expelled the Ottomans from most of Hungary and Transylvania (1683–1699), but the Hungarian nobility thwarted the full development of Habsburg absolutism.
B. Prussia in the Seventeenth Century
1. Hohenzollerns — Dynasty that ruled as imperial electors in Brandenburg and Prussia, including Frederick William, The Great Elector.
2. Junkers — The nobility that dominated the estates of Brandenburg and Prussia.
3. The Absolutist Solution — The Junkers agreed to accept royal taxation (to fund the army) in exchange for authority over the serfs.

14. III. Absolutism in Austria and Prussia
C. The Consolidation of Prussian Absolutism
1. Frederick William I
2. The Prussian Army
III. Absolutism in Austria and Prussia
C. The Consolidation of Prussian Absolutism
1. Frederick William I — “The Soldiers’ King” (r. 1713–1740) — eliminated the last traces of parliamentary estates and local self-government, transformed Prussia into a military state, and established Prussian absolutism.
2. The Prussian Army — By 1740, Prussia had the fourth largest — and the best — army in Europe. It relied on discipline, forced conscription, universal and lifelong male military service, in which the Junkers dominated the officer corps.

15. IV. The Development of Russia and the Ottoman Empire
A. The Mongol Yoke and the Rise of Moscow
1. Mongol Rule
2. Ivan III (r. 1462–1505)
3. Tsars
B. The Tsar and People
1. Ivan the Terrible (r. 1553–1584)
2. The Time of Troubles (1593–1613)
3. The Romanov Dynasty
IV. The Development of Russia and the Ottoman Empire
A. The Mongol Yoke and the Rise of Moscow
1. Mongol Rule — 200 years of rule by the Mongol Empire, which forced the Slavic princes to submit and provide money, goods, and slaves.
2. Ivan III (r. 1462–1505) — A “great prince” who declared his autonomy from the Mongols, but modeled his rule on that of the autocratic Mongol khans. He and other “great princes” received support from the boyars, the highest-ranking nobles.
3. Tsars — A contraction of the word caesar, since the princes of Moscow saw themselves as the heirs of the Byzantine Empire, Orthodox Christianity, a “Third Rome.”
B. The Tsar and People
1. Ivan the Terrible (r. 1553–1584) — Defeated the remnants of Mongol power, added new territories to the realm, laid the foundations of the multiethnic Russian empire, persecuted those he suspected of opposing him, including the boyars, created a service nobility dependent on the state (giving portions of the estates seized from the boyars to the new nobility), made all commoners servants of the state, bound peasant to the land and urban traders and artisans to the towns and cities. All of the Russian people were brought into the tsar’s service, including the Cossacks.
2. The Time of Troubles (1593–1613) — After the death of Ivan, the Cossacks and peasants revolted — and were crushed by the nobles.
3. The Romanov Dynasty (established by Michael Romanov, r. 1613–1645) — A restoration of tsarist authority that led to the extension of serfdom to all peasants and successful wars with Poland and the conquest of Siberia.

16. IV. The Development of Russia and the Ottoman Empire
C. The Reforms of Peter the Great (1682–1725)
1. Peter’s Goals
2. Reforms
3. His Achievements
D. The Growth of the Ottoman Empire
1. Ottomans
2. Unique Model of State and Society
3. Sultans
IV. The Development of Russia and the Ottoman Empire
C. The Reforms of Peter the Great (1682–1725)
1. Peter’s Goals — Building and improving the army, territorial expansion, learning from the West.
2. Reforms — After early defeats in the Great Northern War (1700–1721) with Sweden, Peter required all nobles to serve in the army or civil administration for life, created schools and universities to create technicians and experts, required noblemen to be educated for five years away from home, established a civil-military bureaucracy, and hired talented foreigners. He established a regular standing army, enlisted Cossacks and foreign mercenaries, taxed the peasants (to fund the army), and assigned the serfs to work in factories and mines.
3. His Achievements — Defeated Sweden, annexed Estonia and Latvia, built a western-style capital at St. Petersburg, began to westernize Russia and continued a course of absolutism.
D. The Growth of the Ottoman Empire
1. Ottomans — Conquering warriors from Central Asia who settled in Anatolia and created one of the most powerful empires (Persia, North Africa, central Europe).
2. Unique Model of State and Society — A sultan — a peasantry (that paid taxes to use the nobility), no hereditary nobility, janissaries (young captured Christian slaves who were raised as Muslims and trained to serve in the army), a bureaucracy (also consisting of Christian slaves), the millet system (distinct nations within an explicitly Islamic state — Orthodox Christians, Jews, Armenian Christians, Muslims).
3. Sultans — Marital situation designed to stabilize power. They married women of the highest social standing while keeping many concubines of low rank (procreated only with concubines and not with official wives — each concubine could produce only one male heir.)

18. V. Alternatives to Absolutism in England and the Dutch Republic
A. Absolutist Claims in England
1. Queen Elizabeth I
2. James I (r. 1603–1625)
3. Charles I
B. Religious Divides and the English Civil War
1. Puritans
2. The Royal Response
3. The Long Parliament (1640–1660)
4. The Civil War (1642–1649)
V. Alternatives to Absolutism in England and the Dutch Republic (movements towards constitutionalism — the limitation of government by law and republicanism)
A. Absolutist Claims in England
1. Queen Elizabeth I — Popular and possessed great power but had no heir.
2. James I (r. 1603–1625) — King of Scotland and the England who believed in absolutism — a monarch has a divine right to his authority and is responsible only to God.
3. Charles I — Squabbled with Parliament, which he and his father regarded as a constraint to their authority, and attempted to govern without it.
B. Religious Divides and the English Civil War
1. Puritans — Felt that the Reformation had not gone far enough and wanted to “purify” the Anglican Church of Roman Catholic elements.
2. The Royal Response — “no bishop, no king” — James I and Charles I imposed a new prayer book, which prompted a revolt by the Presbyterian Scots, and Charles was forced to summon Parliament.
3. The Long Parliament (1640–1660) — Parliament, angered at not having been summoned between 1629 and 1640, enacted legislation limiting the power of the monarch (the Triennial Act, which compelled the king to summon Parliament every three years).
4. The Civil War (1642–1649) — The Irish led an uprising, Charles unsuccessfully attempted to arrest parliamentary leaders, left for the north of England and drew up an army. Parliament formed its own army, the New Model Army, which eventually defeated the King’s army. Under the leadership of Oliver Cromwell, a devout Puritan, the New Model Army captured Charles, who was put on trial for high treason and executed in 1649.

19. V. Alternatives to Absolutism in England and the Dutch Republic
C. Cromwell and Puritanical Absolutism in England
1. Thomas Hobbes
2. Commonwealth (Republic)
3. Protectorate (1653–1658)
D. The Restoration of the English Monarchy (1660)
1. Restoration (1660)
2. Charles II (r. 1660–1685)
3. James II (r. 1685–1688)
V. Alternatives to Absolutism in England and the Dutch Republic
C. Cromwell and Puritanical Absolutism in England
1. Thomas Hobbes — Author of Leviathan, which argues for the creation absolute monarchy, necessary to avoid chaos and civil war.
2. Commonwealth (Republic) — Legislative power rested in surviving members of parliament, and executive power was lodged in a council of state.
3. Protectorate (1653–1658) — In reality, power lay with the army and Cromwell, a de facto military dictatorship — Cromwell dismissed Parliament in 1655, proclaimed quasi-martial law, allowed for some religious toleration (except for Catholics), crushed the Irish rebellion, adopted mercantile policies, welcomed the immigration of Jews.
D. The Restoration of the English Monarchy (1660)
1. Restoration — (1660) — Failed to address two critical issues — what was to be the attitude of the state toward Puritans, dissenters, and Catholics from the established church (Test Act of 1673 — all outside the Church of England were to be denied positions in government and basic civil liberties), and what was to be the relationship between King and Parliament.
2. Charles II (r. 1660–1685) — Attempted to work with Parliament but did not get the money he wanted — entered into an agreement with his cousin Louis XIV — Louis gave him 200,000 pounds annually in exchange for relaxing the laws against Catholicism, re-Catholicizing England, and converting himself.
3. James II (r. 1685–1688) — Appointed Roman Catholics to positions in the armies, government and the universities in violation of the Test Act and granted religious freedoms to all. He was driven off the throne as a result.

20. V. Alternatives to Absolutism in England and the Dutch Republic
E. Constitutional Monarchy and Cabinet Government
1. Glorious Revolution (1688)
2. John Locke (1632–1704)
3. Age of Aristocratic Government
F. The Dutch Republic in the Seventeenth Century
1. The Dutch Republic
2. Commercial Prosperity
V. Alternatives to Absolutism in England and the Dutch Republic
E. Constitutional Monarchy and Cabinet Government
1. Glorious Revolution (1688) — Parliament offered the English throne to William and Mary of Orange (Protestants from Holland) — James II and his infant son fled to France — this represented the destruction of the ideal of absolute divine-right monarchy and the supremacy of Parliament. This was codified in a Bill of Rights — parliament had to be called at least every three years, it could not be suspended by the crown, the judiciary was granted independence, freedom of worship was granted to all dissenters (but not to Catholics).
2. John Locke (1632–1704) — Author of the Second Treatise of Civil Government (1690) — argued that a government that oversteps its proper function — protecting natural rights of life, liberty and property — becomes tyrannical and can be overthrown by the people (understood to be landowners).
3. Age of Aristocratic Government (from 1688 to 1832, and possibly 1928) — A cabinet system in which leading ministers formulated policy and were responsible to the House of Commons — legislative and executive power was held by the leading ministers and the influence of the Crown diminished.
F. The Dutch Republic in the Seventeenth Century
1. The Dutch Republic —(Power rested in the hands of the people and was exercised through elected representatives) — regents (wealthy businessmen who handled domestic affairs in each province’s estates or assemblies) — States General (a federal assembly handled federal affairs and war but did not possess sovereign authority and all issues had to be approved by all 7 local Estate), stadtholders (executive officers who carried out ceremonial functions and was responsible for military defense — the position was usually held by the reigning prince of Orange).
2. Commercial Prosperity — Resulted from thrift, frugality, and religious toleration (Jews enjoyed a high level of assimilation) — successful shipbuilding, high salaries.

21. VI. Baroque Art and Music
1. The Term Baroque
2. Origins
3. Baroque Music
VI. Baroque Art and Music
1. The Term Baroque — (the word means an “odd-shaped, imperfect pearl”)
2. Origins — In the Catholic reformation, particularly in Spain, Latin America, Austria, southern Germany and Poland — the papacy and the Jesuits encouraged the growth of an intensely emotional, exuberant art (lavish, wildly decorative frescoes) Peter Paul Rubens (1577–1640).
3. Baroque Music — Culminated in music of Johann Sebastian Bach (1685–1750).