1. Skeletal System

2. Axial Skeleton
80 bones

3. Appendicular Skeleton
126 bones

4. Bony composition Compact bone: outer portion
Medullary canal- inner portion made of cancellous bone. Bone marrow is located within medullary canal ad it is interspaced with trabeculae.
Trabeculae: web like bony structure. Can be seen on a properly exposed radiograph.
Diploe: cancellous bone located within the skull.
Red bone marrow: found in normal adult bones of the trunk. At 20 years of age the majority is replaced by yellow bone marrow which is primarily fat.
Osteoblasts: bone forming cells that line the medullary canal and are interspaced throughout the peristeum. Responsible for bone growth and thickening, ossification and regeneration.
Osteoclasts: break down bone to enlarge the medullary canal and allow for bone growth.

5. Endochondral Ossification
Diaphysis: refers to the shaft portion of the long bones. Primary site of ossification.
Epiphysis: expanded end portion and it’s the secondary site of ossification.
Metaphysis: growth zone between the epiphysis and diaphysis.
Diaphysis: refers to the shaft portion of the long bones. Primary site of ossification.
Epiphysis: expanded end portion and it’s the secondary site of ossification.
Metaphysis: growth zone between the epiphysis and diaphysis.
There is a growth plate between the metaphysis and epiphysis made of cartilage. Appears radiolucent until child grows and it calcifies.
Peristoeum: fibrous membrane that encloses all the bone except the joint surfaces.
The more physical stress the bone is under the more thickly the compact bone becomes.

6. Congenital and Hereditary Diseases

7. Osteogenesis Imperfecta
Often called brittle bone disease
Hereditary or congenital
Serious disease
Bone cortex is thin and porous, and trabeculae are thin, delicate and widely separated
X-ray demonstrates various fractures in various stages of healing and general decrease in bone mass
Deficient formation of osseous tissue, skin , slcera, inner ear and teeth.
2 Main groups:
1) Congenita- present at birth and there are multiple fractures at birth. Limb deformities and dwarfism that may lead to death.
2) Tarda- fractures may not appear until some years after birth and then generally stop once adulthood is reached. They often have hearing disorder that persists called otoslcerosis. Otosclerosis is abnormal connective tissue around auditory ossicles.

8. Osteogeneis Imperfecta

9. Achondroplasia Most common inherited disorder of the skeletal system
Results in bone deformity & dwarfism
Normal trunk size & shortened extremities
Usually no more than 4ft tall
Clinical manifestation:
Lumbar lordosis,
bowed legs,
bulky forehead with hypoplasia
narrowing of foramen magnum causing neural compression
Achondroplasia
Most common inherited skeletal disorder.
Results in bone deformity and dwarfism. Does not skip generations and 50% of passing it to children.
Cartilage on epiphysis of the long bones does not convert to bone; impairs longitudinal growth of the bones.
Normal trunk size and shortened extremities. Usually no taller than 4 ft.
Other symptoms include extreme l-spine lordosis, bowed legs, bulky forehead, and narrowing of the foramen magnum.

10. Achondroplasia

11. Osteopetrosis Bones are abnormally heavy and compact but brittle
All bones are affected by most changes occur in long bones of extremities, vertebrae, pelvis and base of skull
X-rays demonstrate increase in thickness and density of bony cortex.
Increase in the # and size of trabeculae, reduction of the marrow space
Increase in bone density and defective bone contour.
Bones are heavy and compact but brittle.
All bone are affected but primarily the bones of the extremities, vertebrae, pelvis and base of the skull.
Radiographs show increase density and thickness of bony cortex as well as an increase in the number and size of trabeculae with reduction of bone marrow space.

12. Osteopetrosis

13. Scoliosis Lateral curvature of the spine
Does not usually become visible until adolescents
Affects girl more
Lateral curvature of the spine. Convex to the RT on the t-spine and convex to the LT on the l-spine.
80% are idiopathic
Can generate complications such as cardiopulmonary complications, degenerative spinal arthritis, fatigue, joint dysfunction syndromes.
Non-structural scoliosis-results from uneven leg length or postural changes due to chronic pain elsewhere in the body.

14. Scoliosis

15. Rotoscoliosis

16. Transitional Vertebra Often called Lumbar Ribs
Takes on characteristics of both vertebrae on each side of a major division of the spine
1st lumbar may have a rib
At C7 there may be a cervical rib

17. Cervical Ribs & Lumbar Ribs
AT C7 it can exert pressure on brachial nerve plexus or subclavian artery requiring removal.

18. Anencephaly Congenital abnormality Brain and cranial vault do not form
Results in death shortly after birth
Can be diagnosed with US before they are born

19. Anencephaly

20. Inflammatory Diseases

21. Rheumatoid Arthritis Chronic autoimmune that may fluctuate in severity
Overgrowth of the synovial tissues
X-ray shows soft tissue swelling & osteoporosis of affected bone. Bone erosion & decalcification
7 criteria for diagnosis of RA
Morning stiffness in and around the joints
Simultaneous soft tissue swelling or fluid of at least 3 joint areas lasting for at least 6 weeks and observed by and MD
Arthritis hand joints-at least one area swollen in a PIP, MCP or wrist joint for at least 6 weeks.
Rheumatoid nodules or lumps of tissue
Abnormal amounts of serum RF
Symmetric arthritic- simultaneous involvement of the same joint areas on both sides of the body for at least weeks.
Radiographic changes demonstrating bone erosion and decalcification

22. Rheumatoid Arthritis
Occurs in years and affects women 3x’s more than men.
As the disease progresses cortical erosion with joint space narrowing occurs b because of overgrowth of synovial tissue in the articualr spaces. This damage makes joint unstable and leads to deformity caused by displacement of bones.
Can result in subluxation and dislocation eventually leads to fusing. Sometimes surgical intervention is needed to correct these pathologies.
synovium excision
dislocation correction
joint reconstruction
joint replacements

23. Osteoarthritis Most common form of arthritis
Articular cartilage degenerates & gradually is worn away exposing underlying bone
Ostephytes & bone spurs are on x-rays
Osteoarthritis
Affects men/women equally. Asymptomatic until 50’s.
Generally affects the LG weight bearing joints such as the hip and knee
Loss of cartilage appears as joint narrowing. Overgrowth of cartilage occurs in the peripheral surfaces of the joint and calcifies- bone spurs. The bone spurs or osteophytes are what distinguish one arthritis from the other.
NSAIDS and exercise are the best treatment.

24. Osteoarthritis

25. Osteomyelitis Infection of the bone & bone marrow
Symptoms & signs include fever, heat in the affected area, & dull pain
X-rays demonstrate loss of bone calcium and soft tissue swelling
Osteomyelitis
Pathogenic microorganisms spread via the bloodstream. (hematogenous)
Contiguous infetions- burns, sinus disease, peridontal infection, soft tissue infection and peripheral vascular disease.
NUC med and MRI are better for imaging this pathology.

26. Osteomyelitis

27. Ankylosing Spondylitis
Progressive form of arthritis affecting the spine
X-ray shows bilateral narrowing & fuzziness of the SI joints
Calcification of the bones of the spine with ossification of the vertebral ligaments
Ankylosing Spondylitis
Progressive type of arthritis mainly affecting the spine. Usually affects men years old.
Symptoms: low back pain at night, morning stiffness, weight loss, low grade fever, fatigue and anemia.
Early radiographic signs include narrowing and fuzziness of SI joints. Eventually there are no SI joints and disease progresses up the spine.
Disk space calcifies and bone of the spine fuses.
Treated with NSAIDS, exercise and postural training.

28. Ankylosing Spondylitis

29. Is an inherited metabolic disorder in which excessive amounts of uric acid is produced & deposited in the joint and adjacent bone
Bone changes include erosion & overhanging edges
Gout
Inherited metabolic disorder in which uric acid is deposited into the joint and adjacent bone. Occurs more frequently in men and most commonly in the metatarsalphalangeal joints of the great toe.
The crystallization causes an inflammatory action.
Treatment includes medications to promote excretion of uric acid or to inhibit the production of uric acid.

30. Gout

31. Spondylolisthesis Slipping of the body of the vertebra
Symptoms are similar to those of a herniated disk
Refers to the anterior slipping of the body of the vertebra.
Symptoms are similar to those of a slipped disk. 90% occur at L5-S1, best detected on a lateral projection.

32. Spondylolisthesis

33. Osteochondroma Benign bone tumor Affects women more than men
Asymptomatic
Excessive bone growth
Cortex of osteochondroma blends in with normal bone and growth protrudes up & away from nearest joint
Most common benign bone tumor
Affects men 3x’s more than women. Arises in the metaphysis. Most commonly involves lower femur and upper tibia.
Cortex blends with normal bone, growth protrudes upward and away form the nearest joint and most commonly in the knee.
Many times it is asymptomatic until trauma occurs.

34. Osteochondroma

35. Osteosarcoma Most common primary malignancy of the skeleton
Highly aggressive and most often occurs in the bone marrow
X-ray appears as a sunray or sunburst
Osteosarcoma
Most frequently found in the metahysis of the long bones and 50% affect knees.
75% of patients are under 20 years
Most commonly in bone marrow and it is highly aggressive.

36. Osteosarcoma

37. Bone Cyst Idiopathitic disease and is not a true neoplasm
Consists of numerous blood filled arterivenous communications
Most common treatment is surgical removal
Bone Cyst
Generally occurs in the metaphysis of long bones in patients under 20 years. Slow growing.
Symptoms include pain and swelling at the site of cyst.
Cystic growth causes thinning of the bony cortex that is apparent radiographically. It is a well-circumscribed lesion associated with soft tissue extension and peristeal bulging.

38. Bone Cyst

39. MRI Superior contrast resolution for soft tissue detail
Modality of choice for soft tissue tumor
Extremely useful in eval of joints
MRi detects a larger number of musculoskeletal subtleties with higher resolution imaging
Bone marrow imaging is better than nuc med scans for subtle abnormalities

40. CT Can be performed quickly & noninvasively
Defines extent of fractures and dislocations
Superior to MRI for cortical bone and visualization of bony detail
Gives better bone detail than plain x-ray
Has been largely replaced by MRI for soft tissue

41. Nuclear Medicine
Has advantage over CT & MRI because it can scan the whole body at one time
Can show if an injury is old or new
Still the standard for examination of metastatic processes because it demonstrates metabolic reaction of bone to the disease process
Is more sensitive than comparative radiographic studies