1. Hardware Definitions –Port: Point of connection –Bus: Interface Daisy Chain (A=>B=>…=>X) Shared Direct Device Access –Controller: Device Electronics –Registers: Device Storage for CPU to device communication –Handshakes: signals sent between devices and the CPU through shared memory or privileged I/O instructions Issue (many devices & manufactures) Solutions –Standard interfaces –Uniform drivers for device groups –Manufacturer provided drivers Device addresses for automatic probes

2. CPU Device Control Privileged I/O instructions control devices –Interface with device command-ready, busy, and error status registers Direct memory I/O instructions –Ties devices to memory locations Memory-mapped I/O –Reserved memory addresses control a device (E.g.: monitor display) Simple Polling interface –Useful if device response is almost instantaneous (busy-wait) WHILE command-ready-register = device-not-ready THEN spin Issue send or receive command WHILE device is busy THEN spin (This is a busy wait loop) IF error and retry-count not expired THEN restart the command RETURN I/O complete

3. Programmed IO I/O raises the CPU Interrupt request line At next instruction, the Interrupt occurs, and the CPU state saved The Interrupt vector directs interrupts to the correct handler –Interrupt chaining ties multiple devices to a single vector entry –Some interrupts can be masked based on priority Traps are software triggered interrupts

4. Direct Memory Access (DMA) Used to avoid programmed I/O for large data transfers from fast devices Requires a DMA controller enabling devices to directly access memory CPU cycles are stolen for each memory reference The driver gives the DMA controller chains of addresses and lengths

5. I/O Sub-system Note: Some specialized devices have unique interfaces and drivers Purpose: Abstract, Encapsulate, and Layer Device-drivers: Encapsulate controller differences from kernel Device Categories I/O Subsystem Structure

6. Device Categories by Speed

7. Kernel Data Structures Kernel maintains system-wide I/O components table Kernel maintains free, used, “dirty” buffers in complex data structures I/O Wait queues and cache buffering

8. Device-status Table

9. Application API Block devices include disk drives –Commands include read, write, seek –Raw I/O or file-system access –Memory-mapped byte streams using virtual memory facilities Character devices (keyboards, mice, serial ports) –Commands include get, put –Libraries layered on top allow line editing (backspace etc.) Network devices –Incorporates protocol, flow control, and pipelining –Separates network protocol from network operation –Includes select functionality (socket port numbers) Clocks and Timers for current time and elapsed time –Course grain regular interval interrupts –Programmable non-interruptible timers for fine grain resolution

10. System Call to Perform I/O

11. Categories of OS calls Blocking - process suspended until I/O completed –Easy to use and understand –Insufficient for some needs Non-blocking - I/O call returns as much as available –User interface, data copy (OS buffered I/O) –Implemented via multi-threading –Returns quickly with count of bytes read or written Asynchronous - process runs while I/O executes –Difficult to use –I/O subsystem signals process when I/O completed Direct Application control –ioctl (on UNIX) allows applications to directly control devices –Driver testing

12. Additional OS I/O Subsystem Services Caching - fast memory access to recently accessed data –Always just a copy –Significant performance impact Spooling - hold output for a device –If device can serve only one request at a time –i.e., Printing Exclusive device reservation –System calls for allocation and de-allocation –Deadlocks are possible Scheduling - Ordering the I/O requests in the per-device queue –Some OSs try fairness Buffering - store data in OS buffers during transfers –To cope with device speed or transfer size mismatches –To maintain “copy semantics”, and dirty buffers. Fault processing : Recovery through retry operations, error logs Miscellaneous : Pipes, FIFOs, packet handling, streams, queues, mailboxes

13. Flow of an I/O Request Consider request to read a file –What device? –Name translation –Copy between application and kernel buffer –Change process status to ready

14. Streams STREAM – flow from source to sink (process device) –Full-duplex: flow in both directions –Stream head interfaces with the user process –Stream tail interfaces with the device –Stream wrappers enable data manipulation (filtering) at each level, which contain their own read/write queuing capabilities Implementation –Message passing between adjacent queues –Multiple copies operations will increase overhead

15. Performance Potential bottlenecks: –CPU device processing –Context switches after processing interrupts –Copying between OS and user buffers –Routing network traffic Performance improvements –Reduce context switches –Minimize data copying –Minimize interrupts and reduce latency by using large transfers, smart controllers, DMA –Balance CPU, memory, bus, and I/O contention for highest throughput I/O System flow illustrating bottlenecks

16. Incorporate of new Devices Where should the device handling code go?