1. Topic 2.3 Theory of the Firm

2. Cost Theory Fixed Cost: costs that do not vary with changes in output example: rent Variable Cost: costs that vary with quantity of output produced example: labor, materials, fuel Total Cost: sum of fixed cost and variable cost at each level of output TC= FC + VC

3. Average Total Cost: AFC + AVC or ATC= FC/Q Marginal Cost: The increase in total cost that arises from an additional unit of output MC= ∆TC/ ∆Q Accounting Cost + Opportunity Cost = Economic Cost

4. Average Fixed Cost: Fixed costs divided by the quantity output AFC= FC/Q Average Variable Cost: Variable costs divided by the quantity of output AVC= VC/Q

5. Short-Run Law of Diminishing Returns: each additional unit of variable input eventually yields a decreasing output

6. Long-Run Economies of scale: long-run ATC as Q Diseconomies of scale: long-run ATC as Q

7. Revenues Total Revenue: The total amount of money received from the sale of a good or service at any given quantity of output. Marginal Revenue: The additional revenue added to the total revenue that is gained from selling one more unit. Average Revenue: Total revenue divided by the number of units sold

8. Profit An increase in wealth that an investor has from making an investment taking into account all of the costs of that investment including the opportunity cost Normal profit: minimum profit necessary to attract or retain producers in a perfectly competitive market. Usually equal to the opportunity costs. Supernormal profit: profit that exceeds normal profit.

9. Thou shalt produce where MC=MR Profit (continued)

10. Perfect Competition >Numerous buyers and sellers of which none are able to influence the market. >Everyone is privy to all information >Products are homogeneous >No barriers to entry and no barriers to exit.

11. Perfect Competition Thou shalt produce where MC = MR. Efficiency in perfect Competition is both allocatively and productively efficient Allocative efficiency occurs when output is at society's optimum level. P=MC Productive efficiency is when a firm produces at the lowest possible cost per unit. AC=MC

12. Perfect Competition

13. Monopoly >One firm >Unique product, no close substitutes >Considerable control over price >Entry of additional firms are blocked >No effort in advertising

14. Monopoly (continued) Sources of Power 1.Status secured by patents, economies of scale, or resources ownership 2.Not regulated by government 3.Costs of production make a single producer more efficient than a large number of producers

15. Monopoly

16. Monopoly vs. Perfect Competition Disadvantages higher price lower output abnormal profit Produces where Average costs are higher (inefficient) Advantages Capable of using economies of scale therefore reducing costs and increasing output

17. Natural Monopoly Monopoly that arises because a single firm can supply a good or service to an entire market at a smaller cost than could two or more

18. Monopolistic Competition Large number of small firms. (Almost) perfect knowledge. Differentiated products. No barriers to entry or exit. In the short-run abnormal profits can be earned (at MC=MR) In the long-run only normal profits can be earned.

19. Oligopoly Competition between a few firms many buyers, few sellers differentiated products Barriers to entry present If one firm reduces its price competitors will follow example

20. Oligopoly (continued) Non-collusive Oligopoly: firms compete against each other in a normal way Collusive Oligopoly: firms try to come to an agreement to reduce the amount of competition. Cartels: OPEC

21. Price Discrimination Different people are charged different prices for exactly the same good. Conditions >Time >Income >Age