1. Can We Make a Difference?
The Process of Change
Can We Make a Difference?

2. The complexity of change in the social world
Social change- defined as variations or alterations over time in the behavior patterns, culture (including norms and values), and structure of society
Some is controllable, some not
Inevitable and ubiquitous
Can be rapid or gradual and evolutionary
Change at one level often caused by changes at other levels

3. Change and micro-level analysis
Individuals with enough wealth, expertise, power by force, or charisma can influence change
Organizations can use numerous strategies for change, including appealing to individuals’ values, removing uncooperative individuals from the organization, etc.

4. Change and meso-level analysis
State terrorism- terrorism instituted by a government to control the citizens of its own or another nations
Not necessarily meso-level
Terrorism- “the use of indiscriminate violence to cause mass fear and panic to intimidate a population and advance one’s political goals, whatever they may be” (Nolan 2002).
Meso-level with personal and global implications

5. Change and macro-level analysis
Environmental changes caused by one nation affect the entire world, but most nations do not want to change for economic reasons
International alliances based primarily on economic ties

6. Social change: Processes and theories
Change is triggered by:
Strain- interior pressures for change
e.g., conflicting goals or belief systems
Stress- exterior pressures for change
e.g., the natural environment, population dynamics, leaders or dominant individuals, technology, the social environment, or major historical events

7. Theories of social change
Symbolic interactionism- humans actively construct meaning; re-definitions of situations can be powerful impetuses for change
Rational choice- a group seeking change must set up a situation in which new desired behavior is rewarded; alternatively, people’s perceptions about the advantages/disadvantages of old behaviors can be changed

8. Theories of social change
Cyclical theories- societies go through cycles similar to the rise and fall of civilizations or the human life cycle
Toynbee- societies move from passive to active in response to stresses; a stress will mobilize a society but the activism slows as the change becomes institutionalized

9. Theories of social change
Social evolutionary theories- societies move slowly from simple to more complex forms
Unilinear social evolutionary theories- all societies progress through the same steps; advancement is desirable
Lenski- societies progress through four stages
Multilinear social evolutionary theories- simple societies go through a process of change to become large, complex, technologically advanced societies in a variety of ways

10. Theories of social change
Functionalist theories- societies are basically stable (held together by shared norms) and composed of interdependent parts that make the society function smoothly; slow change may occur as societies become more complex, but rapid change is potentially destabilizing and is dysfunctional
Conflict theories- change is inevitable; conflict between those in power and the oppressed will lead to healthy changes that are useful for society

11. Theories of social change
World systems theory- all societies have been influenced (at least indirectly) by capitalism
Core nations- economically and politically powerful countries; historically have controlled global decision making and received the largest share of profits from the world economic systems
Periphery nations- countries that provide cheap labor and raw materials for the core nations
Semi-peripheral countries- countries in an intermediate position between core and periphery nations that trade with both; industrializing, so many core countries expand there or work as partners with them

13. Collective behavior
Collective behavior- actions that are spontaneous, unstructured, disorganized, and often violate norms; they arise when people are trying to cope with stressful situations and unclear or uncertain conditions
Crowd behaviors- forms of collective behavior in which a crowd acts, at least temporarily, as a unified
Mass behaviors- individual people communicate or respond in a similar manner to ambiguous or uncertain situations, often based on common information from the news or on the internet

14. Theories of collective behavior
The minimax strategy- individuals try to minimize costs and maximize gains; based on rational choice
Emergent norm theory- collective behaviors often take place in unusual situations where norms break down and new definitions of acceptable behavior emerge

15. Theories of collective behavior
Value-added theory- key elements are necessary for individuals to join together in collective behavior
Structural conduciveness
Structural strain
Spread of a generalized belief
Precipitation factor
Mobilization for action
Social controls are weak

17. Types of collective behavior
Mobs
Riots
Panic
Rumors
Fads
Fashions

18. Meso-level: Planned change in organizations
Because of modern communication and transportation techniques, the outcomes of even small changes cannot be fully predicted
Planned change- deliberate, structured attempts, guided by stated goals, to alter the status quo of the social unit

19. Models for planning organizational change
Closed system models- the goal of closed system models is to move the organizational closer to ideal bureaucratic efficiency and effectiveness
Human resources organic model- focuses on the internal dynamics of a company, taking individual workers into account (e.g., Hawthorne studies)
Human relations approach and the organizational development movement- workers at the organization are included in the decision-making process that leads to change; atmosphere is transparent

20. Models for planning organizational change
Open system models- combine internal processes and external environment; the external environment provides the organization with inputs (workers and raw materials) and feedback (accessibility of the product)
The process of planned change
Organizations must try to avoid conflict to stay balanced, but planned change can be beneficial
Organizational leaders direct planned change

21. Macro-level change: Social movements
Social movements- consciously organized attempts outside of established institutional mechanisms to enhance or resist change through group action]
Focused on a common interest
Most common in industrial or post-industrial societies where there are diverse groups that advocate for their own goals and interests
Usually begun by individuals outside the power structure
Often stimulate counter movements- social movements against the goals of the original movement

22. Stages of social movements
Preliminary stage- the context for a movement is set
Popularization stage- individuals coalesce their efforts, define their goals and strategies, develop recruitment tactics, and identify leaders; the social movement enters the public arena
Institutionalized stage- the organization gains the members and funds necessary for change
Fragmentation and demise- the group breaks apart because the resources may be exhausted, the leadership may be inept or may have lost legitimacy, or the leaders may be co-opted by powerful mainline organizations (this stage does not occur in all movements)

23. Conditions for social movements
A preexisting communication network that allows dissatisfied or alienate people to share their thoughts
The people in the network must share basic values (and often share similar social statuses or positions)
A strain or precipitating event occurs
Effective leadership emerges
The people in the movement develop a sense that they can successfully change the system

24. Types of social movements
Expressive - focus on changing individuals and saving people from corrupt lifestyles
Social reform - seek to change some aspect of society, but members generally support the society as a whole
Revolutionary - attempt to transform society, to bring about total change in a society by overthrowing existing power structures and replacing them with new ones
Resistance or regressive - see change as a threat to societal values, so try to protect an existing system or part of a system
Global transnational - focus on large-scale, global issues

26. Globalization and social movements
Social movements are arising in response to the core countries’ mistreatment of periphery nations
Current globalization has damaged the environment, lessened consumer protection, decreased national sovereignty and local control of decisions, and reduced safety and other protections for workers

27. Globalization and social movements
Globalizing from below- efforts by common people to fight back; protect workers, defend the environment, and combat poverty
Lilliput strategy- one tiny individual cannot fight massive corporations, but many individuals working in tandem can

28. Technology, environment, and change
Technology- the practical application of tools, skills and knowledge to meet human needs and extend human abilities
Science- the systematic process of producing human knowledge; it uses empirical research methods to discover facts and test theories
Technology applies this scientific knowledge

29. Ogburn and social change
Change is brought about by:
Discovery- viewing something that has always been present in a different way
Invention- combining existing parts, materials, or ideas to form new ones
Diffusion- the spread of an invention or discovery from one place to another

30. Technology and change
New technology can improve the lives of those in developing countries, but in other ways may be deleterious
The social world is interdependent, but its parts are often in conflict