1. Angiosperm Reproduction and Biotechnology
Dillin Snape

2. Overview Sexual VS asexual reproduction. Growth of a seed and fruit
Since agriculture started, breeders have genetically manipulated traits of some wild crops by artificial selection.
Now the speed and extent of plant modification have increased in recent decades with Genetic Engineering.

3. Flower Structure Four modified leaves called floral organs: Sepals
Enclose and protect the floral bud before it opens.
Stamens
Reproductive organ.
Stalk and anther.
Carpel
May have one or more carpels.
Ovary at the base
One or more ovules inside.
Long slender neck called the style.
At the top there is a sticky structure called stigma.
Landing platform for pollen.

4. Pollination Enables Gametes to Come Together Within a Flower
Angiosperm sporophytes have a flower, a reproductive structure.
Pollination brings a male gametophyte to the stigma of a flower.
Germination brings a sperm from the gametophyte to a female gametophyte.
Located in the ovule, embedded in the ovary of the flower.
Fertilization happens within each ovule.

5. Gametophyte Development and Pollination
Male gametophytes form in the pollen sac.
Female gametophytes forms in each ovule.
Pollination is transferring pollen from an anther to a stigma.
A pollen grain makes it way down to the ovary.
Discharges sperm to a embryo sac.
An embryo develops.
The ovule develops into a seed.
The ovary develops into a fruit which contains one or more seeds..
When the conditions are ready they develop into seedlings.

6. Preventing Self-Fertilization
Sexual reproduction has many advantages.
Genetic Diversity.
Better chance of some offspring surviving a challenge.
Self-Incompatibility
A plant rejects it’s own pollen by not growing the pollen tube.
Gametophytic self-incompatibility.
Sporophytic self-incompatibility.

7. After Fertilization Double Fertilization One sperm makes a zygote.
The other sperm make a triploid nucleus called an endosperm.
Food storing tissue of the seed.
Ovules turn into seeds.
Ovaries turn into fruit.
Protect seeds.
Aids in dispersal.
Types of fruit
Simple – From a single carpel or fused carpel's.
Aggregate – A single flower with more than one separate carpel forming fruits.
All clustered together.
Multiple- A group of flowers clustered together. When the ovary’s grows they all fuse together to form one fruit.

8. Seed germination Dormancy
As it matures it enters a phase of low metabolic rate.
Waiting for the right condition to germinate
The right conditions
Many species differ, some example:
A lot of rain (Desert)
Forest fire (Competing plants are gone)
The right season (Ensuring a long growth season)
Light (Lettuce)
Weakened by chemicals (Animals digestive tract)
Some seeds can remain dormant for days to decades, some even longer.

9. Seed to Seedling Begin by a process called Imbibition
Uptake of water from the low water potential of the dry seed.
The first organ to emerge form the seed is the radicle
Embryonic root.
Then there are two ways for the shoot tip to break through the soil surface.
First Way
A hook shape forms from the hypocotyl.
Growth pushes the hook above the surface.
Light stimulates it to straighten.
Leaves emerge and start making food from photosynthesis
Second Way
The coleoptile, pushes upwards through the soil and into the air.
The shoot tip grows through the tubular coleoptile. Breaking though the tip.

10. Asexual Reproduction Exact clone of the parent Advantages
If it is in a stable environment then all of it’s offspring will be suited for that environment.
Offspring aren’t as frail.
Usually mature vegetative fragment from the parent plants.
Disadvantages
An unstable enviroment
New pathogens
Varied offspring means some can survive.
If a catastrophic event happened like a new disease, then all of them would die.

11. Mechanisms Plants are able to renew or sustain growth indefinitely.
Parenchyma cells can divide and differentiate into more specialized types of cells.
A stem can get cut off and it will grow roots and become a whole plant.
Fragmentation
Separation of a parent plants into parts the develop whole new plants.
Apomixis
Producing seeds without pollination.
No joining of sperm and egg.
A diploid cell in the ovule gives rise to an embryo.

12. Vegetative Propagation and Agriculture
Propagation is a form of asexual reproduction which plants grow new roots.
Cutting
Cutting of parts of a plant that will grow adventitious roots and form a whole new plant.
A callus forms first and then the roots grow from that.
If a node is included in the fragment then the callus stage is skipped.
Grafting
A twig or bud from one plant can be grafted onto a plant of a closely related species.
Combines the best qualities of each
The plant that provides the root system is the Stock.
The grafted part of the other plant is called the Scion.
Test Tube Cloning
Able to grow whole plants by culturing smalls pieces of tissue or even single parenchyma cells.
Callus's form and hormones are used to shoot out roots.
Then transferred to soil.
Can make transgenic plants by inserting foreign genes.

13. Plant Biotechnology Transforming Agriculture
Two meanings:
Innovations in the use of plants, or the substances made by plants, to make products for humans.
Genetically modifying plants in agriculture and industry

14. Artificial Selection