1. CS 103 Discrete Structures Lecture 02
Logic and Proofs (1)
Chapter 1 section 1.1 by Dr. Mosaad Hassan

2. The Foundations: Logic and Proofs
Chapter 1, Part I: Propositional Logic

3. Chapter Summary Propositional Logic Predicate Logic Proofs
The Language of Propositions
Applications
Logical Equivalences
Predicate Logic
The Language of Quantifiers
Nested Quantifiers
Proofs
Rules of Inference

4. Propositional Logic Summary
The Language of Propositions
Connectives
Truth Values
Truth Tables
Applications
Translating English Sentences
Logic Circuits
Logical Equivalences
Important Equivalences
Verifying Equivalence

5. Propositional Logic
Section 1.1

6. Section Summary Propositions Connectives Truth Tables Negation
Conjunction
Disjunction
Implication; contrapositive, inverse, converse
Biconditional
Truth Tables

7. Rules and Logic
Rules of logic specify the meaning of mathematical statements
They are used to distinguish between valid and invalid mathematical arguments
They are also used in the design of computer circuits, the construction of computer programs, and the verification of the correctness of programs
Example: If you get 100% on the final, then you get an A
Logic is the basis of all mathematical and automated reasoning
It has practical applications to the design of computing machines, to the specification of systems, to artificial intelligence, to computer programming, to programming languages, and to other areas of computer science.

8. Proofs and Theorems Proof is a correct mathematical argument.
Proofs play an essential role in the development of new ideas. They are used to:
verify that computer programs produce the correct output for all possible input values
show that an algorithm always produces the correct result
establish the security of a system
Theorem is a mathematical statement built using other correct mathematical statements

9. Propositional Logic Basic building blocks of logic are propositions
A Proposition is a declarative sentence (that is, a sentence that declares a fact) that is either true or false, but not both.
The following are propositions.
Ar Riyadh is the capital of the KSA.
Cairo is the capital of Egypt.
1 + 2 = 2
2 + 2 = 3
Propositions 1 and 2 are true, whereas 3 and 4 are false
Chapter 1 section 1.1 by Dr. Mosaad Hassan

10. Propositional Logic The following are not propositions:
What time is it?
Read this carefully
x + 1 = 2
x + y = z
1 and 2 are not propositions because they are not declarative sentences.
3 and 4 are not propositions as they are neither true nor false. They can, however, be turned into propositions if we assign values to the variables.

11. Propositional Variables
Propositional variables (or statement variables) are letters used to represent propositions, not used to denote numerical variables.
Letters commonly used to denote propositional variables are p, q, r, s,
Truth value of a proposition is either T or F
Propositional logic (or propositional calculus) is the area of logic that deals with propositions.
It was first developed systematically by the Greek philosopher Aristotle more than 2300 years ago

12. Compound Propositions
They are formed or constructed by combining one or more existing propositions using logical operators. The simplest of those logical operators is negation.
Negation of a proposition (negation operator)
Let p be a proposition. The negation of p, denoted by p, is the statement "It is not the case that p"
The proposition p is read "not p"
The truth value of p is the opposite of the truth value of p p ¬p T F

13. Negation (NOT) Operator ¬
Example: Find the negation of the proposition Today is Friday and express it in simple English
Solution: The negation is any of the following:
It is not the case that today is Friday
Today is not Friday
It is not Friday today
Exercise: Find the negation of:
At least 10 students attended today’s class
Taibah University is in Madinah Munawwarah

14. Conjunction (AND) Operator 
Definition: Let p and q be propositions. The conjunction of p and q, denoted by p  q, is the compound proposition "p and q"
The conjunction p  q is True only if both p and q are true, and False otherwise p q
p ∧ q T F

15. Conjunction (AND) Operator 
Example: Find the conjunction of the propositions p and q where:
p: Today is Friday
q: It is raining today
Solution: The conjunction p  q is the proposition Today is Friday and it is raining today
This proposition is:
True on rainy Fridays
False on any day that is not a Friday and on Fridays when it is not raining

16. Disjunction (OR) Operator 
Definition: Let p and q be propositions. The disjunction of p and q, denoted by p  q, is the compound proposition "p or q"
The disjunction p  q is:
False only if both p and q are False
True otherwise p q
p ∨q T F

17. Disjunction (OR) Operator 
Example: Find the disjunction of the propositions p and q where:
p: Today is Friday
q: It is raining today
Solution: The disjunction p v q is the proposition Today is Friday or it is raining today
This proposition is:
True on any day that is either a Friday or a rainy day (including rainy Fridays)
False only on days that are not Fridays when it also does not rain

18. Disjunction: Inclusive OR 
Connective OR is used in two ways:
Inclusive OR (or just OR)
A disjunction is True when at least one of the two propositions is true.
Example: Students who have taken calculus or computer science can take this class
That is, students who can take the class are:
Who have taken both calculus and computer science,
Who have taken calculus
Who have taken computer science

19. Disjunction: Exclusive OR 
A disjunction is True when only one of the two propositions is true
Example: Students who have taken calculus or computer science, but not both, can enroll in this class
That is, students that can take the class are:
Who have taken calculus,
Who have taken computer science
Students who have taken both calculus and a computer science course cannot take the class
enroll : يسجل
Chapter 1 section 1.1 by Dr. Mosaad Hassan

20. Exclusive OR (XOR) Operator 
Definition: Let p and q be propositions. The exclusive or of p and q, denoted by p  q (p XOR q), is the proposition that is:
True when exactly one of p and q is true
False otherwise p q
p ⊕q T F
Chapter 1 section 1.1 by Dr. Mosaad Hassan

21. Conditional Statement: Implication
Definition: Let p and q be propositions. The conditional statement p → q is the proposition if p then q
The conditional statement p → q is
False when p is true and q is false
True otherwise
p → q is true when:
Both p and q are true, or if p is false (no matter what truth value q has) p q
p →q T F
Chapter 1 section 1.1 by Dr. Mosaad Hassan

22. Hypothesis → Conclusion
In the conditional statement p → q:
p is called the hypothesis (antecedent or premise)
q is called the conclusion (consequent or consequence)
There are many ways of expressing p → q:
if p then q if p, q
p is sufficient for q q if p
q when p a necessary condition for p is q
q unless ¬p p implies q
p only if q a sufficient condition for q is p
q whenever p q is necessary for p
q follows from p
Chapter 1 section 1.1 by Dr. Mosaad Hassan

23. Implication: Example
Let p be the statement Ahmed learns discrete structures and q the statement Ahmed will find a good job. Express the statement p → q in English
Solution: The statement p → q can be expressed in English in several ways:
If Ahmed learns discrete mathematics, then he will find a good job
Ahmed will find a good job when he learns discrete mathematics
For Ahmed to get a good job, it is sufficient for him to learn discrete mathematics
Ahmed will find a good job unless he does not learn discrete mathematics
Note: if-then construction used in many programming languages is different from that used in logic
Chapter 1 section 1.1 by Dr. Mosaad Hassan

24. Converse, Contrapositive, & Inverse
There are three conditional statements that are related to the statement p → q:
The inverse of p → q is ¬p → ¬q
The converse of p → q is q → p
The contrapositive of p → q is ¬q → ¬p
A statement and its contrapositive are equivalent
The converse and the inverse of a conditional statement are also equivalent
Chapter 1 section 1.1 by Dr. Mosaad Hassan

25. Contrapositive: Example
Find contrapositive of the conditional statement: The home team wins whenever it is raining q whenever p is the implication p → q p: it is raining q: the home team wins The original statement can be rewritten as: If it is raining, then the home team wins Contrapositive: If the home team does not win, then it is not raining
Chapter 1 section 1.1 by Dr. Mosaad Hassan

26. Converse and Inverse: Example
Find the converse and inverse of the conditional statement: The home team wins whenever it is raining Converse: If the home team wins, then it is raining Inverse: If it is not raining, then the home team does not win Note that only the contrapositive is equivalent to the original statement
Chapter 1 section 1.1 by Dr. Mosaad Hassan

27. CS 103 Discrete Structures Lecture 03
Logic and Proofs (2)
Chapter 1 section 1.1 by Dr. Mosaad Hassan

28. Bi-conditional or Bi-implication
Definition: Let p and q be propositions. The bi-conditional statement p  q is the proposition p if and only if q
The bi-conditional statement p  q is:
True when p and q have
the same truth values
False otherwise p q
p ↔q T F
Chapter 1 section 1.1 by Dr. Mosaad Hassan

29. Bi-conditional or Bi-implication
Example: Let
p: You can take the flight
q: You buy a ticket
Then p  q is the statement:
You can take the flight if and only if you buy a ticket
The same can also be expressed as:
p is necessary and sufficient for q
if p then q, and conversely
p iff q
Note that p  q has exactly the same truth value as (p → q)  (q → p)
Chapter 1 section 1.1 by Dr. Mosaad Hassan

30. Logical Operators: Summary
Negation (true if p is false)
NOT
Conjunction (true if p and q are true)
AND 
Inclusive Disjunction (true if p or q or both are true) OR 
Exclusive Disjunction (true if p and q are different)
XOR 
Implication (false if p is true and q is false) →
Bi-Implication (true if p and q are the same)
XNOR 
Chapter 1 section 1.1 by Dr. Mosaad Hassan

31. Truth Tables for Compound Propositions: Example
Construct the truth table of the compound proposition:
(p  ¬q) → (p  q)
Solution
Chapter 1 section 1.1 by Dr. Mosaad Hassan

32. Truth Tables For Compound Propositions
Rows
Need a row for every possible combination of values for the atomic propositions.
Columns
Need a column for the compound proposition (usually at far right)
Need a column for the truth value of each expression that occurs in the compound proposition as it is built up.
This includes the atomic propositions

33. Truth Tables for Compound Propositions: Exercises
Construct truth tables for each of the following compound propositions:
(p → q)  (¬q → ¬p)
(p → q) → (q → p)
(p  q) → (p  q)
(p  q) → (p  ¬q)
(p  q)  (¬p  q)
(p  q)  (p  ¬q)
(p  q)  (p  ¬q)
(p  q)  (¬q  r)
Chapter 1 section 1.1 by Dr. Mosaad Hassan

34. Precedence of Logical Operators
We will generally use parentheses to specify the order in which logical operators in a compound proposition are to be applied.
To reduce the number of parentheses, we specify the precedence shown in this table:
Which two of the following have the same meaning?
p  q → r
(p  q) → r
p  (q → r)
Operator
Precedence  1   2 3   4 5
Chapter 1 section 1.1 by Dr. Mosaad Hassan

35. Bits and Boolean Variables
Computers represent information using bits
A bit may have one of two values: 0, 1
There are two possible truth values: T, F. Therefore, a bit can be used to represent a truth value as shown in this table:
A variable is called a Boolean variable if its value can only be either true or false.
A Boolean variable can be represented using a bit.
Chapter 1 section 1.1 by Dr. Mosaad Hassan

36. Bit Operations Bit Operations correspond to Logical Connectives
After replacing true by 1 and false by 0 in the truth tables, we can use the bit operators OR, AND, and XOR as follow:
Chapter 1 section 1.1 by Dr. Mosaad Hassan

37. Bit Strings and Bitwise Operations
A bit string is a sequence of zero or more bits. The length of this string is the number of bits in the string.
is a bit string of length nine.
We can extend bit operations to bit strings.
bitwise OR, bitwise AND, and bitwise XOR
Bitwise OR of two strings of the same length is the string that have the OR of the corresponding bits in the two strings
Similarly for bitwise AND and bitwise XOR
We use the symbols , , and  to represent the bitwise OR, bitwise AND, and bitwise XOR operations, respectively
Chapter 1 section 1.1 by Dr. Mosaad Hassan

38. Bitwise Operations: Example
Find the bitwise OR, bitwise AND, and bitwise XOR of the bit strings: and The bitwise OR, bitwise AND, and bitwise XOR of these strings are obtained by taking the OR, AND, and XOR of the corresponding bits, respectively
Chapter 1 section 1.1 by Dr. Mosaad Hassan

39. Applications of Propositional Logic
Section 1.2

40. Examples of Applications of Propositional Logic
Translating English to propositional logic
Electronic logic circuits

41. Translating English Sentences
Statements/sentences in English (and every other natural language) are often ambiguous.
Translating sentences into compound propositions can be used to remove ambiguity
Translation may involve making a set of assumptions based on the intended meaning of the sentence.
After translation of sentences from English into logical expressions we can:
Analyze these logical expressions to determine their truth values
Manipulate them
Use rules of inference
Chapter 1 section 1.1 by Dr. Mosaad Hassan

42. Translating English Sentences: Example 1
Translate the following sentence into a logical expression? You can access the Internet from campus only if you are a computer science major or you are not a freshman
Solution:
Representing this sentence by a single propositional variable, such as p, is not useful
Instead, we will use propositional variables to represent each sentence part and determine the appropriate logical connectives between them.
Let
p: you can access the internet from campus
q: you are a computer science major
r: you are a freshman
Then the required expression is p → (q  ¬r)
Chapter 1 section 1.1 by Dr. Mosaad Hassan

43. Translating English Sentences: Example 2
Translate the following sentence into a logical expression: You cannot ride the roller coaster if you are under 4 feet tall unless you are older than 16 Let p: You can ride the roller coaster q: You are under 4 feet tall r: You are older than 16 years Then, the sentence can be translated to (q  ¬r) → ¬p
roller coaster : السفينة الدوارة
Chapter 1 section 1.1 by Dr. Mosaad Hassan

44. Electronic Logic Circuits
In electronic logic circuits, each input/output signal is viewed as a 0 or 1, where 0 represents False and 1 represents True
Complex circuits are constructed from three basic circuits called gates
The NOT gate (inverter) takes an input and produces its negation
The OR gate takes two inputs and produces the value equivalent to the disjunction of those two inputs
The AND gate takes two inputs and produces the value equivalent to the conjunction of those two inputs
Complex digital circuits are constructed by combining these basic gates to produce the desired output given the input signals

45. Sections 1.1 and 1.2 Exercises
Which of these sentences are propositions? What are the truth values of those that are propositions?
2 + 3 = 5
x + 2 = 11
Answer this question
What time is it?
2n ≤ 100
Jeddah is the capital of Saudi Arabia
Kaaba exists in Makkah.
You are younger than your son.
Chapter 1 section 1.1 by Dr. Mosaad Hassan

46. Find the negation of each of these propositions?
Today is Thursday.
2 + 1 = 3
The summer in Egypt is hot and sunny.
Let p and q be two propositions
p: I received my UK visa this week
q: I’m going to the UK on next Friday
Express the following propositions as English sentences. ¬p
p  q
p → q
p  q
p  q
¬p → ¬q
¬p  ¬ q
¬ p  (p  q)
Chapter 1 section 1.1 by Dr. Mosaad Hassan

47. p : It is below freezing q : It is snowing
Let p and q be the propositions
p : It is below freezing
q : It is snowing
Write the following propositions using p and q and logical connectives.
It is below freezing and snowing.
It is below freezing but not snowing.
It is not below freezing and it is not snowing.
It is either snowing or below freezing (or both).
If it is below freezing, it is also snowing.
It is either below freezing or it is snowing, but it is not snowing if it is below freezing.
That it is below freezing is necessary and sufficient for it to be snowing.
Chapter 1 section 1.1 by Dr. Mosaad Hassan

48. Coffee or tea comes with dinner.
For each of these sentences, determine whether an Inclusive OR or an Exclusive OR is intended. Explain your answer.
Coffee or tea comes with dinner.
A password must have at least three digits or be at least eight characters long.
The prerequisite for the course is a course in number theory or a course in cryptography.
You can pay using U. S. dollars or R.S.
Experience with C++ or Java is required.
Lunch includes soup or salad.
To enter the country you need a passport or a voter registration card.
Publish or perish.
Chapter 1 section 1.1 by Dr. Mosaad Hassan

49. The Red Wings will win the Stanley Cup if their goalie plays well.
Write each of these statements in the form if p then q in English.
I will remember to send you the address only if you send me an message.
To be a citizen of this country, it is sufficient that you were born in the United States.
If you keep your textbook, it will be a useful reference in your future courses.
The Red Wings will win the Stanley Cup if their goalie plays well.
That you get the job implies that you had the best credentials.
The beach erodes whenever there is a storm.
It is necessary to have a valid password to log on to the server.
You will reach the summit unless you begin your climb too late.
Chapter 1 section 1.1 by Dr. Mosaad Hassan

50. If it snows today, I will ski tomorrow.
State the converse, contrapositive, and inverse of each of these conditional statements.
If it snows today, I will ski tomorrow.
I come to class whenever there is going to be a quiz.
A positive integer is a prime only if it has no divisors other than 1 and itself.
If it snows tonight, then I will stay at home.
I go to the beach whenever it is a sunny summer day.
When I stay up late, it is necessary that I sleep until noon.
Chapter 1 section 1.1 by Dr. Mosaad Hassan

51. Construct the truth table for each of the following compound propositions:
Chapter 1 section 1.1 by Dr. Mosaad Hassan

52. Construct a truth table for each of these compound propositions.
Chapter 1 section 1.1 by Dr. Mosaad Hassan

53. Construct a truth table for each of these compound propositions.
Chapter 1 section 1.1 by Dr. Mosaad Hassan

54. Evaluate each of the following expressions.
Find the bitwise OR, bitwise AND, and bitwise XOR for each pair of bit strings.
Evaluate each of the following expressions.
 (  )
(  ) 
(  ) 
(  01010)  (  )
Chapter 1 section 1.1 by Dr. Mosaad Hassan

55. CS 103 Discrete Structures Lecture 04
Logic and Proofs (3)
Chapter 1 section 1.1 by Dr. Mosaad Hassan

56. Propositional Equivalences
Section 1.3

57. Section Summary Tautologies, Contradictions, and Contingencies.
Logical Equivalence
Important Logical Equivalences
Showing Logical Equivalence

58. Propositional Equivalences
Compound propositions can be classified according to their possible truth values into three types: Tautology is a compound proposition that is always true, no matter what the truth values of the propositions that occur in it Contradiction is a compound proposition that is always false Contingency is a compound proposition that is neither a tautology nor a contradiction Tautologies and contradictions are often important in mathematical reasoning.

59. Tautology and Contradiction: Example
We can construct examples of tautologies and contradictions using just one propositional variable
p  ¬p is a tautology.
p  ¬p is a contradiction p ¬p
p ∨¬p
p ∧¬p T F

60. Logical Equivalence: p  q
Compound propositions that have the same truth values in all possible cases are called logically equivalent
Definition: The compound propositions p and q are called logically equivalent if p  q is a tautology.
The notation p  q denotes that p and q are logically equivalent.
The symbol “” is not a logical connective and p  q is not a compound proposition but rather is the statement that p  q is a tautology

61. Logical Equivalence: Example 1
Show that ¬(p  q) and ¬p  ¬q are logically equivalent
Columns in the truth table giving the truth values of ¬(p  q) and ¬p  ¬q agree. Thus, ¬(p  q)  ¬p  ¬q
Note that ¬(p  q)  (¬p  ¬q) is a tautology p q ¬p ¬q
(p∨q)
¬(p∨q)
¬p∧¬q T F

62. Logical Equivalence: Example 2
Show that ¬p  q and p → q are logically equivalent.
Note that (¬p  q)  (p → q) is a tautology p q ¬p
¬p ∨ q
p→ q T F

63. Logical Equivalence: Example 3
Show that p  (q  r) and (p  q)  (p  r) are logically equivalent
This is the distributive law of disjunction over conjunction

64. Number of Rows in a Truth Table
How many rows are there in a truth table with n propositional variables?
Solution: 2n We will see how to do this in Chapter 6.
Note that this means that with n propositional variables, we can construct 2n distinct (i.e., not equivalent) propositions.

65. Logical Equivalence
This table shows some important equivalences. T denotes the compound proposition that is always true F denotes the compound proposition that is always false

67. Logical Equivalence: De Morgan's Laws
De Morgan’s laws tell us how to negate conjunctions and disjunctions
¬(p  q)  ¬p  ¬q
¬(p  q)  ¬p  ¬q

68. De Morgan’s Laws: Example 1
Determine the negation of Ahmed has a cellphone and he has a laptop computer Let p: Ahmed has a cellphone q: Ahmed has a laptop computer Then Ahmad has a cellphone and he has a laptop computer can be represented by p  q By the first De Morgan's laws, ¬(p  q)  ¬p  ¬q Therefore, the negation of our original statement is Ahmed does not have a cellphone or he does not have a laptop computer

69. De Morgan’s Laws: Example 2
Determine the negation of Ali will go to the university or Mohammad will go to the university Let p: Ali will go to the university q: Mohammad will go to the university Then Ali will go to the university or Mohammad will go to the university can be represented by p  q By the first De Morgan's laws, ¬(p  q)  ¬p  ¬q The negation of our original statement is Ali will not go to the university and Mohammad will not go to the university

70. Verifying Logical Equivalences
Truth Tables are one way of verifying logical equivalences
We can show that two expressions are logically equivalent by developing a series of logically equivalent statements
To prove that A  B we produce a series of equivalences beginning with A and ending with B
Example 1: Show that ¬(p → q)  p  ¬q
¬(p → q)  ¬(¬ p  q) Definition of implication
 ¬(¬ p)  ¬q De Morgan’s law
 p  ¬q Double-negation
A  A1 .
An  B

71. Verifying Logical Equivalences: Example 2
Show that (p  r)  (q  r) and (p  q)  r are logically equivalent
(p  r)  (q  r)  (p  r)  (q  r) Definition of implication
 p  r  q  r Associative
 p  q  r  r Commutative
 (p  q)  (r  r) Associative
 (p  q)  r De Morgan, Idempotent
 (p  q)  r Definition of implication

72. Verifying Logical Equivalences: Example 3
Prove that (p  q)  (p  q) is a Tautology
(p  q)  (p  q)  (p  q)  (p  q) Implication
 (p  q)  (p  q) De Morgan’s
 (p  p)  (q  q) Commutative, Associative
 T  T Identity
 T

73. Using a Truth Table to Show Non-Equivalence: Example
Use a truth table to show that neither the converse nor inverse of an implication are equivalent to the implication Solution: p q
¬ p
¬ q
p →q
¬ p →¬ q
q → p T F

74. Notation for Multiple Conjunctions and Disjunctions

75. Section 1.3 Exercises Use truth tables to verify these equivalences:
Use De Morgan's laws to find the negation of each of the following statements:
Ahmad is rich and happy.
Ali will bicycle or run tomorrow.
Mohammad walks or takes the bus to class.
Ibrahim is smart and hard working.

76. Show that each of these conditional statements is a tautology by using truth tables

77. Show that each of the following compound propositions are logically equivalent:
p  q and (p  q)  (¬p  ¬q)
¬(p  q) and p  ¬q
¬(p  q) and p  q
(p → q)  (p → r) and p → (q  r)
¬p → (q → r) and q → (p  r)
(p → q) → r and p → (q → r)
(p  q) → r and (p → r)  (q → r)
(p → q) → (r → s)and(p → r) → (q → s)

78. Exercise 4.a: Solution
p  q and (p  q)  (¬p  ¬q) p  q  (p → q)  (q → p) Definition of bi-implication  (¬p  q)  (¬q  p) Definition of implication  [(¬p  q)  ¬q]  [(¬p  q)  p] Distributive  [(¬p  ¬q)  (q  ¬q)]  [(¬p  p)  (q  p)] Distributive  [(¬p  ¬q)  F]  [F  (q  p)] Negation  (¬p  ¬q)  (q  p) Identity  (¬p  ¬q)  (p  q) Commutative  (p  q)  (¬p  ¬q) Commutative
Chapter 1 section 1.2 by Dr. Mosaad Hassan