1. Chapter 1: Psychology: Yesterday and Today

2. Lecture Outline What is psychology? Psychology’s roots in philosophy The early days of psychology Twentieth-century approaches Psychology today © John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd.

3. What Is Psychology? Psychology is the scientific study of mental processes and behaviour. © John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd.

4. The Four Goals of Psychology Description Explanation Prediction Control © John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd.

5. Levels of Analysis When studying why a certain behaviour or mental process occurs, one can study the influences of:  The brain  Neural activity  The person  Emotions, ideas, thoughts  The group  Friends, family, culture © John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd.

6. Levels of Analysis LevelWhat Is AnalyzedExample: Using Social Media The brainHow brain structure and brain cell activity differ from person to person and situation to situation What are the patterns of brain activation as people interact with “friends” online? The personHow the content of the individual’s mental processes form and influence behaviour Are there personality factors that influence how much people use different types of social media? Can online social support or crisis resources improve people’s decision making and quality of life? The groupHow behaviour is shaped by the social and cultural environments What features of social networking sites, such as relative anonymity, ease of access, and lack of face-to-face contact, increase or decrease users’ feelings of belonging and connectedness? © John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd.

7. Psychology’s Roots in Philosophy Many myths and ceremonies developed as a way to describe, explain, predict, and control our reality. © John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd.

8. Psychology’s Roots in Philosophy Philosophy is the study of knowledge and reality. Philosophers posed questions and then discussed proposed solutions  This lead to modern day scientific theory. Hippocrates used direct observation to test his theory of medicine; this lead to the development of the scientific method. He developed one of the first psychological theories:  Physical and psychological health are influenced by the four humors. © John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd.

9. The Early Days of Psychology Wilhelm Wundt (1832– 1920) Father of psychology Established first psychology lab in 1879 Started a branch of psychology called voluntarism Studied consciousness © John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd.

10. Structuralism What was it?  An attempt to try to identify all of the elements of consciousness  Looking within yourself to identify conscious elements; a process called introspection  The goal was to describe observable mental processes rather than to explain, predict, or control Who founded it?  Edward Titchener (1867–1927)  He was a student of Wundt and he formed the school of structuralism in the United States © John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd.

11. Functionalism What was it?  The belief that mental processes were fluid (“stream of consciousness”) instead of fixed elements (as structuralists thought)  Emphasizes the functions of the mind in adapting to a changing environment. Included animals and those with mental disorders in research. Who founded it?  William James (1842-1910)  He set up the first psychology lab in the US at Harvard.  He wrote the first psychology textbook, Principles of Psychology, which was published in 1890. © John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd.

12. Gestalt Psychology What was it?  Said consciousness CANNOT be broken down into small elements  We perceive things as whole perceptual units  The whole is greater than the sum of its parts  Problem solving involves insight © John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd.

13. Psychoanalysis What is it?  The belief that people’s behaviours are based on their unconscious desires and conflicts Who founded it?  Sigmund Freud (1856– 1939)  He developed a form of therapy that aimed to resolve unconscious conflicts © John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd.

14. Behaviourism What is it?  The belief that the scientific investigation of psychology should be focused only on behaviour you can observe Who founded it?  Ivan Pavlov (1849–1936)  Found that dogs could learn to associate a bell with an automatic behaviour, such as salivating for food.  John B. Watson (1878–1958)  He conducted the “Little Albert” experiment and solidified classical conditioning © John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd.

15. Behaviourism continued Who founded it?  B.F. Skinner (1904–1990)  He developed operant conditioning, which uses reinforcement and punishment to shape behaviours.  Albert Bandura (1925–)  Demonstrated that children also learn by social observation or modelling © John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd.

16. Humanistic Psychology What is it?  Stresses a person’s capacity for personal growth, freedom to choose his or her destiny, and positive qualities  Humanists say that our subjective perceptions of the world are unique and are more important than behaviour itself Who founded it?  Carl Rogers (1902–1987)  Developed “client-centred therapy,” which said that people are innately good  Abraham Maslow (1908–1970)  He developed a theory of motivation that consists of a hierarchy of needs © John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd.

17. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs © John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd.

18. Cognitive Psychology What is it?  It focused on the important role of mental processes in how people process information, develop language, solve problems, and think  Cognitive psychologists compared the human mind to a computer  Cognitive scientists developed rigorous experimental standards Who founded it?  Ulric Neisser coined the term cognitive psychology as the study of information processing © John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd.

19. Cultural and Cross-Cultural Psychology Cultural psychology  The study of how cognitive processes vary across different populations Cross-cultural psychology  The study of the cognitive processes that are universal regardless of culture © John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd.

20. Neuroscience What is it?  The study of brain structure and activity as they are related to individual behaviours and group dynamics Who founded it?  Karl Lashley (1890–1958)  He used surgical techniques to attempt to locate all areas of the brain responsible for memory, learning, and other functions.  Roger Sperry (1913–1994)  He conducted split-brain research on animals. © John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd.

21. Subfields Influenced by Neuroscience Behavioural genetics: examines the influence of genes on human behaviour Evolutionary psychology: evolution and genetic inheritance are important in shaping our thoughts and behaviours  Sociobiology proposes that our social behaviour is the result of biological and cultural influences © John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd.

22. Clinical and counselling psychology  Work as therapists Academic  Work as professors, both teaching and doing research Applied  Work in schools, marketing firms, research institutions, etc. applying psychological skills to real-life situations. Psychology Today: Three Main Branches of Psychology © John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd.

23. Branches of Psychology © John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd.

24. Where Do New Psychologists Work? © John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd.

25. Shared Values of ALL Psychologists Psychology is…  Theory-driven: uses theories to explain behaviour  Empirical: based on research  Multi-level: explained by the brain, the individual, and social influences  Contextual: based on cultural context © John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd.

26. Current Trends in Psychology Growing Diversity  More women and members of minority groups Advances in Technology  The development of computers, brain imaging techniques, and pharmacological treatments New Schools of Thought  Positive psychology and positive psychotherapy focus on happiness and other positive emotions © John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd.

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