1. Humanities Postgraduate seminar Wednesday 8 August 2007 Ways of knowing in the social sciences Bob Pokrant Social Science Program Media, Society and Culture B.Pokrant@curtin.edu.au B.Pokrant@curtin.edu.au

2. What is it to know something? To represent the world in some way-verbally, written form, pictorially To represent the world in some way-verbally, written form, pictorially Acquired through thinking, asking/observing/interacting with others/things Acquired through thinking, asking/observing/interacting with others/things Knowledge originates with social groups/persons/institutions Knowledge originates with social groups/persons/institutions These groups make claims about the world These groups make claims about the world Tacit knowledge-common sense-taken-for-granted-tooth brush-lay knowledge Tacit knowledge-common sense-taken-for-granted-tooth brush-lay knowledge Codified knowledge-discursive consciousness-expert knowledge Codified knowledge-discursive consciousness-expert knowledge Knowledges competing with each other for recognition and acceptance Knowledges competing with each other for recognition and acceptance

3. Academics compete with academics; with non-academics. Climate change debate Academics compete with academics; with non-academics. Climate change debate All knowledge is obtained in mediated form- theory/touch/smell/first and second-hand experience-these are frames of understanding All knowledge is obtained in mediated form- theory/touch/smell/first and second-hand experience-these are frames of understanding Cognitive knowledge-claims about what is (episteme) Cognitive knowledge-claims about what is (episteme) Moral knowledge-claims about what should be done with what is (phronesis-value rationality) Moral knowledge-claims about what should be done with what is (phronesis-value rationality) Policy knowledge-claims about how to achieve policy objectives (techne-instrumental rationality) Policy knowledge-claims about how to achieve policy objectives (techne-instrumental rationality) Aesthetic knowledge-claims about what is beautiful/uplifting about what is Aesthetic knowledge-claims about what is beautiful/uplifting about what is

4. Three interconnected-claims of what is used to legitimate claims of what should be-’race’, gender etc Three interconnected-claims of what is used to legitimate claims of what should be-’race’, gender etc Truth claims-accepted belief; true belief-modernist-post- modernist split Truth claims-accepted belief; true belief-modernist-post- modernist split Concept-reality: Do babies exist before they are given names or called babies? Concept-reality: Do babies exist before they are given names or called babies? Are brains social constructs? Are brains social constructs?

5. Why did the Twin Towers collapse on 11 September 2001? If a then b. If fast moving object strikes fixed object, the fixed object collapses. If a then b. If fast moving object strikes fixed object, the fixed object collapses. On September 11 2001, a fast moving object (plane) struck the fixed object (Twin Towers) and as a result, the Towers collapsed. On September 11 2001, a fast moving object (plane) struck the fixed object (Twin Towers) and as a result, the Towers collapsed. Does this explain why the towers collapsed? Yes and no. Does this explain why the towers collapsed? Yes and no. The physical explanation is a necessary condition for the understanding of the event, but insufficient to explain it. The physical explanation is a necessary condition for the understanding of the event, but insufficient to explain it. One could say this is a mechanical explanation whereas as social scientists we also need explanations at the level of social meaning. But all explanation is meaningful in some sense. One could say this is a mechanical explanation whereas as social scientists we also need explanations at the level of social meaning. But all explanation is meaningful in some sense.

6. Levels of reality and explanation: Levels of reality and explanation: – Planes hit the buildings – Skilful/poor piloting-training – Poor design of the buildings- design/builders/architects – Poor surveillance-security personnel – Terrorist attack-person(s) designated as terrorists-who says? – Globalisation seen as threat by some communities/groups

7. Kind of explanation/knowledge Cognitive-what are the facts of the case? What constitutes a relevant fact? Cognitive-what are the facts of the case? What constitutes a relevant fact? Objects of investigation (people) are self-conscious, reflexive beings like ourselves. The double hermeneutic. Objects of investigation (people) are self-conscious, reflexive beings like ourselves. The double hermeneutic. Critical realism: we do perceive a world that exists independently of our perceiving it, but not as it is in itself, unperceived, but always and necessarily only as humanly perceived. Critical realism: we do perceive a world that exists independently of our perceiving it, but not as it is in itself, unperceived, but always and necessarily only as humanly perceived. Science is only possible if it is about something that exists independently of our senses Science is only possible if it is about something that exists independently of our senses Surface appearance of things can be misleading about their true character: posits a stratified model of reality. Surface appearance of things can be misleading about their true character: posits a stratified model of reality. Scientific work is to investigate and identify relationships and non-relationships, respectively, between what we experience, what actually happens, and the underlying mechanisms that produce events in the world Scientific work is to investigate and identify relationships and non-relationships, respectively, between what we experience, what actually happens, and the underlying mechanisms that produce events in the world

8. Aim is to tap the deep reality of mechanisms, powers, flows etc Aim is to tap the deep reality of mechanisms, powers, flows etc Knowledge is always tentative and our beliefs about the world are subject to falsification: can be shown not to be so (could be accident, another terrorist group etc) Knowledge is always tentative and our beliefs about the world are subject to falsification: can be shown not to be so (could be accident, another terrorist group etc) Anti-naturalist ontologically: social life is maintained through active agents. Anti-naturalist ontologically: social life is maintained through active agents. theories actively created by researchers within theoretical traditions: physics, aeronautics, architecture, security studies, anthropology etc. theories actively created by researchers within theoretical traditions: physics, aeronautics, architecture, security studies, anthropology etc. the knower tried to grasp imaginatively how others experienced their world, how they constructed it, and what meaning it had for them. the knower tried to grasp imaginatively how others experienced their world, how they constructed it, and what meaning it had for them.

9. Exercise 1: Does the social world have a pre-existing order which you as researchers seek to discover? Must you rid your minds of pre-conceptions of the world in order to study it?

10. Exercise 2: Exercise 2: How central are people’s own understandings to your research? How central are people’s own understandings to your research? Can you give an example of people’s intentions and what they mean. Can you give an example of people’s intentions and what they mean. Is your job done after describing their intentions and understandings? Is your job done after describing their intentions and understandings?

11. Exercise 3: Exercise 3: Do you have a casual account as distinct from an interpretivist account of why your research subjects act the way they do? Do you have a casual account as distinct from an interpretivist account of why your research subjects act the way they do? What are its main components? What are its main components?

12. Exercise 4: Exercise 4: Can you give an example from your research of meaning beyond that of your subjects/respondents/informants ? Can you give an example from your research of meaning beyond that of your subjects/respondents/informants ?

13. Exercise 5: Exercise 5: Why did the attack on the twin towers in New York in 2001 occur? Why did the attack on the twin towers in New York in 2001 occur? In answering, think about the following: In answering, think about the following: What constitute the facts of the case? Significance What constitute the facts of the case? Significance Is the question a single question requiring a single answer? Is the question a single question requiring a single answer? Are there why and how explanations? Are there why and how explanations? In what ways do your explanations link back to bedrock assumptions and concepts about the nature of how the world works (or your view of it)? In what ways do your explanations link back to bedrock assumptions and concepts about the nature of how the world works (or your view of it)?

14. The end

15. Making knowledge claims Empiricist/objectivism Empiricist/objectivism interpretivism interpretivism phronesis phronesis

16. Empiricist/objectivist paradigm social world exists in itself independently of our minds social world exists in itself independently of our minds To know that world properly is to have cognitively/linguistically unmediated access to it (collecting facts) To know that world properly is to have cognitively/linguistically unmediated access to it (collecting facts) True knowledge is a copy of mind-independent entities True knowledge is a copy of mind-independent entities rid their minds of pre-conceptions to allow the facts to register rid their minds of pre-conceptions to allow the facts to register The method of inquiry said to be common to social and natural science The method of inquiry said to be common to social and natural science

17. Critique of E/O paradigm Facts do not speak for themselves, they must be given significance Facts do not speak for themselves, they must be given significance Facts are theory-impregnated Facts are theory-impregnated Researchers actively construct accounts of the world within theoretical traditions. Researchers actively construct accounts of the world within theoretical traditions.

18. Perspectivism and Interpretivism Perspectivism: Dominant epistemological paradigm today Facts are a product of conceptual schemes Perspectivism: Dominant epistemological paradigm today Facts are a product of conceptual schemes Interpretivism: Knowledge consists of understanding the meaning of what others do as expressed in their own terms Interpretivism: Knowledge consists of understanding the meaning of what others do as expressed in their own terms objects of investigation (people) are self-conscious, reflexive beings like ourselves. The double hermeneutic. objects of investigation (people) are self-conscious, reflexive beings like ourselves. The double hermeneutic. the knower tried to grasp imaginatively how others experienced their world, how they constructed it, and what meaning it had for them. the knower tried to grasp imaginatively how others experienced their world, how they constructed it, and what meaning it had for them.

19. person as active creator of reality rather than passive bearer of it a la positivism and structuralism. person as active creator of reality rather than passive bearer of it a la positivism and structuralism. This human-created world might correspond to some real world, that is, constructivists can be realists. Extreme constructivists are anti-naturalist/realist This human-created world might correspond to some real world, that is, constructivists can be realists. Extreme constructivists are anti-naturalist/realist

20. Interpretation and cause Knowing what people mean when they say or do something is a necessary but not sufficient condition of understanding social life. Knowing what people mean when they say or do something is a necessary but not sufficient condition of understanding social life. Social life has regularities not intended by members of the society Social life has regularities not intended by members of the society unanticipated consequences of people’s acts unanticipated consequences of people’s acts Unconscious Unconscious Unknown conditions Unknown conditions Knowing is interpreting and explaining Knowing is interpreting and explaining

21. Social scientists must also go beyond seeing meaning as simply the intention of the actor who acts. The acts of terrorists may have their own personal meanings but they have wider meanings that the terrorists may or may not be aware of. Social scientists must also go beyond seeing meaning as simply the intention of the actor who acts. The acts of terrorists may have their own personal meanings but they have wider meanings that the terrorists may or may not be aware of. Interpretation here is placing the meaning of acts within wider contexts-9/11 means the birth of a new era of ontological insecurity; 9/11 means the emergence of non-state actors as serious threats to national order; 9/11 means that US policy in the Middle East has failed; 9/11 means disaffected Muslim youths can seek new identities in a new religious movement. Interpretation here is placing the meaning of acts within wider contexts-9/11 means the birth of a new era of ontological insecurity; 9/11 means the emergence of non-state actors as serious threats to national order; 9/11 means that US policy in the Middle East has failed; 9/11 means disaffected Muslim youths can seek new identities in a new religious movement.

22. Social science as phronesis 3 intellectual virtues: 3 intellectual virtues: – Episteme: Scientific knowledge. Universal, invariable, context independent. Based on general analytical rationality. The original concept is known today by the terms “epistemology” and “epistemic.” Social science practiced as episteme is concerned with uncovering universal truths or laws about society.

23. – Techne: Craft/art. Pragmatic, variable, context dependent. Oriented toward production. Based on practical instrumental rationality governed by a conscious goal. – Appears today in terms such as “technique,” “technical,” and “technology.” – Social science practiced as techne is consulting aimed at better policies by means of instrumental rationality—a type of social engineering—where “better” is defined in terms of the values and goals of those who employ the consultants, sometimes in negotiation with the latter.

24. – Phronesis: Ethics. Deliberation about values with reference to praxis. Pragmatic, variable, context dependent. Oriented toward action. Based on practical value rationality. Social science practiced as phronesis is concerned with deliberation about (including questioning of) values and interests aimed at praxis.

25. What claims does phronesis make? – That it provides ethical guidance for science and technology – That the key questions of social inquiry should be: Where are we going?; who gains and who loses, and by which mechanisms of power?; is this development desirable? what, if anything, should we do about it? – Rejects foundationalism and relativism and replaces them with contextualism or situational ethics. – That scientists must work with those they study – That objectivity is a process of taking a critical attitude to one’s own pre-conceptions, one’s own evidence, and one’s own research place within scholarly, civil society and other networks

26. Readings Fay, B (1996): Contemporary philosophy of social science. Oxford: Blackwell Publisher Fay, B (1996): Contemporary philosophy of social science. Oxford: Blackwell Publisher Flyvbjerg, B (2001): Making Social Science Matter: Why Social Inquiry Fails and How It Can Succeed Again. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Flyvbjerg, B (2001): Making Social Science Matter: Why Social Inquiry Fails and How It Can Succeed Again. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Mark Harris (ed) (2007): Ways Of Knowing: New Approaches in the Anthropology of Knowledge and Learning. Oxford: Berghahn Mark Harris (ed) (2007): Ways Of Knowing: New Approaches in the Anthropology of Knowledge and Learning. Oxford: Berghahn Jonathon W. Moses and Torbjørn Knutsen (2007): Ways Of Knowing Jonathon W. Moses and Torbjørn Knutsen (2007): Ways Of Knowing Competing Methodologies in Social and Political Research. London: Palgrave Macmillan White. S K (2002): “Review of Making Social Science Matter: Why Social Inquiry Fails and How It Can Succeed Again,” American Political Science Review 96, no. 1: 179-80. White. S K (2002): “Review of Making Social Science Matter: Why Social Inquiry Fails and How It Can Succeed Again,” American Political Science Review 96, no. 1: 179-80.