2. Chapter 4 Syntax 4.1 Introduction Syntax: study of the internal structures of sentence and the rules for the combination of words (1)a.The hunter fears the cries of the blackbirds. b. The blackbirds fear the cries of the hunter. b. The blackbirds fear the cries of the hunter. (2)a. Jack looked up the word.. b. Jack looked the word up. b. Jack looked the word up. (3)*Cries fear the the of hunter blackbirds the. Conclusion: structure of the sentence such as word order can change the meaning. Every sentence is a sequence of words but not vice versa. Sentence formation has rules, so that we have well/ill formed or (un)grammatical sentences.

3. 4.2 Word Classes Nouns are words used to refer to people, objects, creatures, places, events, qualities, phenomena and abstract ideas. Adjectives are words that describe the thing, quality, state or action which a noun refers to. Verbs are words used to refer to various actions and states involving the “ things ” in events. Adverbs are words that describe or add to the meaning of a verb, an adjective, another adverb, or a sentence, and which answers the questions introduced by how, where, when, etc. Prepositions are words used with nouns in phrases providing information about time, place and other connections involving actions and things. Conjunctions are words used to connect and indicate relationships between events and things. (3) The hunter fears the cries of the blackbirds Art+N+ V+ Art+ N+ Prep+Art+N Art+N+ V+ Art+ N+ Prep+Art+N The rules which govern the structure of phrases are known as phrase structure rules or rewrite rules.

4. 4.3 The Prescriptive Approach: An approach taken by some grammarians, mainly in eighteenth-century England, who lay down rules for the correct or “ proper ” use of English by following Latin. (a)You must not split infinitives (b) You must not end a sentence with a preposition. To boldly go. Preposition is not a word you can end a sentence with. Who do you see? 4.4 The Descriptive Approach: an approach taken throughout the 20th century which attempts to describe the regular structures of the language as it is used by collecting samples. 4.4.1 Structural Analysis: a descriptive approach studying the distribution of linguistic forms in a language by means of test frames. (4) The ----- makes a lot of noise. (5) I heard a ----- yesterday. (6) ----- makes a lot of noise. (7) I hear ----- yesterday.

5. Categories and basic clause types in English: NP,VP,PP … Categories and basic clause types in English: NP,VP,PP … 1. SV 1. SV 2. SVC 2. SVC 3. SVO 3. SVO 4. SVA 4. SVA 5. SVOA 5. SVOA 6. SVOC 6. SVOC 7. SVOiOd 7. SVOiOd Or rather, Or rather, 1. SV(A) 1. SV(A) 2. SVC 2. SVC 3. SVO(A) 3. SVO(A) 4. SVOC 4. SVOC 5. SVOiOd 5. SVOiOd

6. Phrase categories and their structures Phrase categories----the syntactic units that are built around a certain word category are called phrase categories, such as NP(N), VP(V), AP(A), PP(P). Phrase categories----the syntactic units that are built around a certain word category are called phrase categories, such as NP(N), VP(V), AP(A), PP(P). The structure: specifier + head + complement The structure: specifier + head + complement Head---- the word around which a phrase is formed Head---- the word around which a phrase is formed Specifier---- the words on the left side of the heads Specifier---- the words on the left side of the heads Complement---- the words on the right side of the heads Complement---- the words on the right side of the heads

7. Phrase structure rules The grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule, such as: The grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule, such as: NP  (Det) + N +(PP) …… e.g. those people, the fish on the plate, pretty girls. NP  (Det) + N +(PP) …… e.g. those people, the fish on the plate, pretty girls. VP  (Qual) + V + (NP) …… e.g. always play games, finish assignments. VP  (Qual) + V + (NP) …… e.g. always play games, finish assignments. AP  (Deg) + A + (PP) …… very handsome, very pessimistic, familiar with, very close to AP  (Deg) + A + (PP) …… very handsome, very pessimistic, familiar with, very close to PP  (Deg) + P + (NP) …… on the shelf, in the boat, quite near the station. PP  (Deg) + P + (NP) …… on the shelf, in the boat, quite near the station.

8. specifier X' X (head) complement X"X" The X Bar Theory Note: The phrase structure rules can be summed up as XP rule shown in the diagram, in which X stands for N, V, A or P. Note: The phrase structure rules can be summed up as XP rule shown in the diagram, in which X stands for N, V, A or P.

9. 4.4.2 Immediate constituent analysis Language is linear and hierarchical. We can analyze language from its largest level to the smallest level, that is from its construction to its constituents by means of substitutability and expansion. The first divisions or cuts of a construction are called immediate constituents and the final cuts as the ultimate constituents. The approach to divide the sentence up into its immediate constituents by using binary cutting until obtaining its ultimate constituents is called immediate constituent analysis(IC). 9) [[[the] [man]] [[bought] [[a] [car]]]] 9) [[[the] [man]] [[bought] [[a] [car]]]]

10. Cutting sentences into their constituents can show up and distinguish ambiguities, as in the case of the ambiguous phrase old men and women, which may either refer to old men and women of any age or to old men and old women. The two different interpretations can be represented by two different tree structures: Cutting sentences into their constituents can show up and distinguish ambiguities, as in the case of the ambiguous phrase old men and women, which may either refer to old men and women of any age or to old men and old women. The two different interpretations can be represented by two different tree structures:

11. 4.5 Constituent Structure Grammar: A grammar which analyzes sentences using only the idea of constituency, which reveals a hierarchy of structural levels. The main principle is labeling and bracketing based on the idea that linguistic units can be parts of larger constructions or can themselves be made up of smaller parts. (binary and verb-centered) Inverted tree diagram:

12. Generative Rules S → NP ＋ VP VP → Vtr. ＋ NP NP → Art ＋ N Vtr. → buy, sell, build, repair, wash, etc. N → man, woman, car, house, bicycle, etc. Art → a, an, the (12)a. The man bought a car. b. The man sold a car. b. The man sold a car. c. The woman repaired the bicycle. c. The woman repaired the bicycle. there is a large number of sentences in English that such rules cannot produce. This set of rules has very limited generative power. The above rules only deal with simple noun phrases and transitive verbs. They do not allow us to deal with any part of the verb structure such as tense, modals or aspect.

13. (13) a. The man sells the car in the garage. b. The woman washes the bicycle in the street. b. The woman washes the bicycle in the street. c. The boy repairs the bicycle in the house. c. The boy repairs the bicycle in the house.

14. Disambiguate

15. Recursion John said Cathy thought Mary helped George. This is the farmer sowing his corn That kept the cock that crowed in the morn That waked the priest all shaven and shorn That married the man all tattered and torn That kissed the maiden all forlorn That milked the cow with the crumpled horn That tossed the dog That worried the cat That killed the rat That ate the malt That lay in the house that Jack built. Lexical selection restriction and TG grammar (17) *The belief washed an apple. The boy cleaned the room up. (discontinuous) The boy cleaned the room up. (discontinuous) Brian hit George → George was hit by Brian. Brian hit George → George was hit by Brian.

16. 4.6 TG grammar: a grammar including phonology and semantics. Classical theory: phrase structure rules, transformational rules and morphophonemic rules.S → NP+VP; simple active declarative kernel sentences; negative, passive or interrogative sentences (17) NP1 ＋ Aux ＋ V ＋ NP2 → NP2 ＋ Aux ＋ be ＋ en ＋ V ＋ by ＋ NP1 The boy has repaired the bicycle → The bicycle has been repaired by the boy. The boy has repaired the bicycle → The bicycle has been repaired by the boy. features: generation and context-free features: generation and context-free Standard theory: deep structure and surface structure

17. Infl Phrase InflP （ =S ） NP VP NP Det N Infl V Det N A boy Pst find the evidence

18. Deep structure & surface structure Consider the following pair of sentences: Consider the following pair of sentences: John is easy to please. John is easy to please. John is eager to please. John is eager to please. Structurally similar sentences might be very different in their meanings, for they have quite different deep structures. Structurally similar sentences might be very different in their meanings, for they have quite different deep structures.

19. Deep structure & surface structure Consider the following pair of sentences: Consider the following pair of sentences: John is easy to please. John is easy to please. John is eager to please. John is eager to please. Structurally similar sentences might be very different in their meanings, for they have quite different deep structures. Structurally similar sentences might be very different in their meanings, for they have quite different deep structures.

20. Deep structure & surface structure Consider the following pair of sentences: Consider the following pair of sentences: John is easy to please. John is easy to please. John is eager to please. John is eager to please. Climbing plants can be terrible. Climbing plants can be terrible.

21. Transformations Auxiliary movement (inversion) Auxiliary movement (inversion) Do insertion Do insertion Wh-movement Wh-movement Move α and constraints on transformations Move α and constraints on transformations

22. Auxiliary movement CP S C NP Infl Det N Infl V Will the train e arrive

23. Do insertion Do insertion CP C S NP Infl VP Birds fly CP CC SS Infl NP Infl VPNP Infl VP Birds do fly Do birds e fly Figure-1 Figure-2 Figure-3

24. Wh-movement---- Move a wh phrase to the specifier position under CP. (Revised) Wh-movement---- Move a wh phrase to the specifier position under CP. (Revised) CP VP V NP win the game S NP Infl e Pst NP C Who

25. 4.7 Functional Grammar: Linguists who adopt this view are interested in relating the various kinds of structures and patterns that language shows to the functions that language fulfills and to the social settings in which it is used. Difference from TG: function and contextual, purposeful Halliday ’ s three meta-functions: ideational, (19) The boy kicked the post. (the post was kicked by the boy) (20) The man liked the new house. (21) The child is homeless. (22) The girl laughed. (23) The visitor said “ hello ”. (24) There is a girl over there. Interpersonal: declarative, interrogative and imperative; mood; politeness (27)a. Pass the salt. b. Please pass the salt. b. Please pass the salt. c. Can you pass the salt? c. Can you pass the salt? d. Could you possibly pass the salt? d. Could you possibly pass the salt? e. You couldn ’ t possibly pass the salt, could you? e. You couldn ’ t possibly pass the salt, could you? Textual: thematic and information structure

26. Metafunctions Process type subcategory Nuclear participants examplematerial Event(i.e. happening) Action(i.e. doing) Actor, goal, (beneficiary/recipie nt, range/circumstance) She built the house (for the kids) She climbed (the mountain) mentalPerceptionCognitionaffection Senser, phenomenon She saw the car She forgot his name She liked his music relationalAttributiveidentifying Carrier, attribute Token, value Maggie was strong Maggie was our leader Behaviouralbehaver She laughed verbalsayer She replied existentialexistent There was a beautiful princess Ideational Function: transitivity

27. The lion chased the tourist lazily through the forest. subjectfinitepredicator moodresidue Interpersonal Function: Mood Textual Function: Theme and Information The book is on a table The book is on a tableThematicthemerheme informationoldnew

28. Field refers to the nature of the social action: what it is the interactants are about. Tenor refers to the statuses and role relationships: who is taking part in the interaction. Mode refers to the rhetorical channel and function of the discourse: what part the text is playing. Silver Silver In this job, Anne, we ’ re working with silver. Now silver needs to have love. Yea, You know---the people that buy silver love it. Yea---guess they would Yes, mm-well naturally, I mean to say that it ’ s got a lovely gleam about it, you know; and if they come in, they ’ re usually people who love beautiful things. So you have to be beautiful with it; and you sell it with beauty. You-I ’ m sure you know how to do that. Oh but you must! Let ’ s hear-let ’ s hear-look: you say ‘ Madam! Isn ’ t that beautiful! ” If you suggest it ’ s beautiful, they see it as beautiful.

29. Field (a) General. Retail selling in department store: silver department. Task: selling silverware. (b) Specific. Instruction of new member. Task: teaching how to sell silverware. Means of achievement : [premise 1] virtues of silver, [premise 2] customers ’ appreciation thereof, [action] encouragement of this appreciation. Tenor Manageress and new salesgirl; a complex status relationship embodying (a) senior-junior, (b) expert- novice, (c) teacher-apprentice, with a fourth, personal relationship at a metaphorical level, (d) mother- daughter. Mode Natural, spontaneous speech. One-sided dialogue (monologue with acknowledgement). Part 1, expository: exposition-doubt-explanation. Part 2, exhortatory: injunction-doubt-illustration and reassurance. (Halliday, 2000:390)