1. Roman Culture Religion and physical perfection

2. Nature of Roman Religion Central: Pax Deorum - Central: Pax Deorum - peace of the gods Welfare of the state depended on pleasing the gods Welfare of the state depended on pleasing the gods Responsibility of communication with the gods lay with political leaders, i.e. members of political elite who held public offices also held priestly offices (not a separate profession) Responsibility of communication with the gods lay with political leaders, i.e. members of political elite who held public offices also held priestly offices (not a separate profession) In empire – chief priest (pontifex maximus) was the emperor In empire – chief priest (pontifex maximus) was the emperor Communication with gods through prayer and sacrifice; divination; initiation and purification rituals Communication with gods through prayer and sacrifice; divination; initiation and purification rituals

3. Communication with the gods Emphasis on religious activities: Cultus central to Roman religion = the practices and rituals in worship Emphasis on religious activities: Cultus central to Roman religion = the practices and rituals in worship Enormous range of religious practices in Rome Enormous range of religious practices in Rome Emphasis in cultus on the correct repetitions of formulae. Emphasis in cultus on the correct repetitions of formulae. Main forms: Main forms: 1. request for benefits from gods, (in prayers, sacrifices and other offerings) 1. request for benefits from gods, (in prayers, sacrifices and other offerings) 2. Divinations or interpretation of messages from the gods 2. Divinations or interpretation of messages from the gods 3. rituals – such as purifications and initiations which in various ways transformed a person’s situation with respect to the divine 3. rituals – such as purifications and initiations which in various ways transformed a person’s situation with respect to the divine -

4. Range of offerings flowers, cakes, incense, flowers, cakes, incense, Libations = liquids – wine most common, Libations = liquids – wine most common, Milk, oil, honey, even water Milk, oil, honey, even water Blood sacrifice – very common: the ritual slaughter of an animal - domestic (sheep, pig, cow) = symbol of piety Blood sacrifice – very common: the ritual slaughter of an animal - domestic (sheep, pig, cow) = symbol of piety Neither the emperor or any other magistrate/priest carried out the actual slaughter of a victim which was considered a pollution – that was done by the victiarius, normally a slave – an individual who stood outside society. Neither the emperor or any other magistrate/priest carried out the actual slaughter of a victim which was considered a pollution – that was done by the victiarius, normally a slave – an individual who stood outside society.

5. A contract between gods and community Idea of reciprocity: Do ut des -” I grant you this, so that you will give me that in exchange.” Do ut des -” I grant you this, so that you will give me that in exchange.” Quid pro quo - idea - I offer you a benefit and ask for one in return Quid pro quo - idea - I offer you a benefit and ask for one in return Concept must be understood in the context of a culture (Graeco-Roman) where social relationships are based on reciprocal benefits, i.e. patron-client relationship central in Roman society Concept must be understood in the context of a culture (Graeco-Roman) where social relationships are based on reciprocal benefits, i.e. patron-client relationship central in Roman society Rome: when benefit given, the person who receives the benefit owes - gratia - and can be called upon to return the benefit – i.e. patron supports his clients with legal advice, financial support, etc., client called upon to support patron in elections, etc., Rome: when benefit given, the person who receives the benefit owes - gratia - and can be called upon to return the benefit – i.e. patron supports his clients with legal advice, financial support, etc., client called upon to support patron in elections, etc.,

6. Divination Romans believed gods communicated with humans Romans believed gods communicated with humans Divination = interpretation of divine communication Divination = interpretation of divine communication Forms of Divination: Forms of Divination: Oracles – Romans went to Delphi, just like the Greeks for interpretation of dreams; Oracles – Romans went to Delphi, just like the Greeks for interpretation of dreams; observation of the flight of birds; observation of the flight of birds; interpretation of prodigies (unusual events seen as significant) and as messages from the gods that needed to be interpreted – i.e. by haruspices or Sybilline books interpretation of prodigies (unusual events seen as significant) and as messages from the gods that needed to be interpreted – i.e. by haruspices or Sybilline books Christians and Muslims consider practice of divination as mere fortune telling Christians and Muslims consider practice of divination as mere fortune telling

7. Divination and the Deformed in Roman Religion Monster – monstrum – etymologically related to Latin monere = to warn Monster – monstrum – etymologically related to Latin monere = to warn Deformed births – omens (signs) from the gods – represent a ‘warning’ Deformed births – omens (signs) from the gods – represent a ‘warning’ (different from Greeks )– (different from Greeks )– Romans recorded such omens in annual priestly records Romans recorded such omens in annual priestly records Pliny the Elder (NH 7.34) hermaphrodites called androgynoi = manwoman Pliny the Elder (NH 7.34) hermaphrodites called androgynoi = manwoman Haruspices carried out the ritual to appease the gods again and to avert an evil omen by a sacrifice – since the entire state was endangered – such sacrifice was usually a valuable one, i.e. bull (a big bribe) Haruspices carried out the ritual to appease the gods again and to avert an evil omen by a sacrifice – since the entire state was endangered – such sacrifice was usually a valuable one, i.e. bull (a big bribe)

8. Sexual deformity What does Garland suggest was the reason that sexual deformities represented a particularly apt symbol for disorder in the state? What does Garland suggest was the reason that sexual deformities represented a particularly apt symbol for disorder in the state?

9. Family and Marriage Importance of the family in the Roman state Importance of the family in the Roman state The important role of marriage and procreation The important role of marriage and procreation

10. questions Why were so many emperors obsessed with individuals who had exceptionally huge penises? Why were so many emperors obsessed with individuals who had exceptionally huge penises?

11. The god Priapus God of gardens, fertility, etc. God of gardens, fertility, etc. Status often found in Roman gardens of private houses Status often found in Roman gardens of private houses

12. Laughing about the deformed Laughing about the deformed Theories explaining why humans consider disabilities and deformities humorously Theories explaining why humans consider disabilities and deformities humorously Most wide accepted: theory of degradation – function of laughter is to intimidate by humiliating. Most wide accepted: theory of degradation – function of laughter is to intimidate by humiliating. “Humour at expense of disabled to large extent fuelled by sadistic, sexual and scatological impulses” (Garland 74) “Humour at expense of disabled to large extent fuelled by sadistic, sexual and scatological impulses” (Garland 74) But also performs variety of social functions: bolster group cohesion at times when unity of able-bodied is threatened and demoralized. 1 The disabled by drawing attention to their disabilities remind the rest what they have in common. 2 the deformed and disabled frighten and embarrass us – laughter is way of exorcising fear and embarrassment (Garland 75). But also performs variety of social functions: bolster group cohesion at times when unity of able-bodied is threatened and demoralized. 1 The disabled by drawing attention to their disabilities remind the rest what they have in common. 2 the deformed and disabled frighten and embarrass us – laughter is way of exorcising fear and embarrassment (Garland 75). In Greece and Rome – without scientific explanation deformity – particularly frightening, and ordinary life was very harsh and unpleasant for the majority - many would become disabled themselves at some point in their lives In Greece and Rome – without scientific explanation deformity – particularly frightening, and ordinary life was very harsh and unpleasant for the majority - many would become disabled themselves at some point in their lives

13. Garland Chapter 9 Why were Roman physicians unable to study human deformities to any extent, especially deformed newborns? Why were Roman physicians unable to study human deformities to any extent, especially deformed newborns?

14. Most birth at home in family assisted by midwives - not physicians Most birth at home in family assisted by midwives - not physicians Religion required burial of deformed babies immediately to fend of evil Religion required burial of deformed babies immediately to fend of evil No human dissection practiced among Romans; exception medical school in Alexandria No human dissection practiced among Romans; exception medical school in Alexandria Ancient Egyptians had better understanding of human body – because of mummification practices Ancient Egyptians had better understanding of human body – because of mummification practices

15. Roman Medicine and the Hippocratic Corpus A collection of medical writings from Greek and Roman period A collection of medical writings from Greek and Roman period named after Greek physician Hippocrates but most written by his students and successors named after Greek physician Hippocrates but most written by his students and successors Hippocrates 4 th century B.C.,from the island of Cos Hippocrates 4 th century B.C.,from the island of Cos Herophilus 4 th – 3 rd centuries BC, from Alexandria (dissected) Herophilus 4 th – 3 rd centuries BC, from Alexandria (dissected) Soranus 1 st century A.D. Rome Soranus 1 st century A.D. Rome Galen 2 nd century A.D., Pergamum Galen 2 nd century A.D., Pergamum Aretaeus, 2 nd century A.D. Cappadocia Aretaeus, 2 nd century A.D. Cappadocia All of these are famous male physicians – catering primarily to the elite (those who can pay their fees) and who left writings behind All of these are famous male physicians – catering primarily to the elite (those who can pay their fees) and who left writings behind