1. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. PowerPoint Lectures for Biology: Concepts & Connections, Sixth Edition Campbell, Reece, Taylor, Simon, and Dickey Chapter 10 Molecular Biology of the Gene

3. ▪Viruses are invaders that sabotage our cells –Viruses have genetic material surrounded by a protein coat and, in some cases, a membranous envelope –Viral proteins bind to receptors on a host’s target cell –Viral nucleic acid enters the cell –It may remain dormant by integrating into a host chromosome –When activated, viral DNA triggers viral duplication, using the host’s molecules and organelles –The host cell is destroyed, and newly replicated viruses are released to continue the infection Introduction: Sabotage Inside Our Cells Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

4. Ebola virus …… Please read over lab for today

7. THE STRUCTURE OF THE GENETIC MATERIAL Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

8. 10.1 Experiments showed that DNA is the genetic material ▪Frederick Griffith discovered that a “transforming factor” could be transferred into a bacterial cell –Disease-causing bacteria were killed by heat –Harmless bacteria were incubated with heat-killed bacteria –Some harmless cells were converted to disease- causing bacteria, a process called transformation –The disease-causing characteristic was inherited by descendants of the transformed cells Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

9. 10.1 Experiments showed that DNA is the genetic material ▪Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase used bacteriophages to show that DNA is the genetic material –Bacteriophages are viruses that infect bacterial cells –Phages were labeled with radioactive sulfur to detect proteins or radioactive phosphorus to detect DNA –Bacteria were infected with either type of labeled phage to determine which substance was injected into cells and which remained outside Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

10. 10.1 Experiments showed that DNA is the genetic material –The sulfur-labeled protein stayed with the phages outside the bacterial cell, while the phosphorus-labeled DNA was detected inside cells –Cells with phosphorus-labeled DNA produced new bacteriophages with radioactivity in DNA but not in protein Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Animation: Hershey-Chase Experiment Animation: Phage T2 Reproductive Cycle

11. Head Tail fiber DNA Tail

12. Head Tail fiber DNA Tail

14. Batch 1 Radioactive protein Bacterium Radioactive protein DNA Phage Pellet Radioactive DNA Batch 2 Radioactive DNA Empty protein shell Phage DNA Centrifuge Radioactivity in liquid Measure the radioactivity in the pellet and the liquid. 4 Centrifuge the mixture so bacteria form a pellet at the bottom of the test tube. 3 Agitate in a blender to separate phages outside the bacteria from the cells and their contents. 2 Mix radioactively labeled phages with bacteria. The phages infect the bacterial cells. 1 Pellet Centrifuge Radioactivity in pellet

15. Batch 1 Radioactiv e protein Bacterium Radioactive protein DNA Phage Radioactive DNA Batch 2 Radioactiv e DNA Agitate in a blender to separate phages outside the bacteria from the cells and their contents. 2 Mix radioactively labeled phages with bacteria. The phages infect the bacterial cells. 1 Empty protein shell Phage DNA

16. Pellet Empty protein shell Phage DNA Centrifuge Radioactivity in liquid Measure the radioactivity in the pellet and the liquid. Centrifuge the mixture so bacteria form a pellet at the bottom of the test tube. Pellet Centrifuge Radioactivity in pellet 4 3

17. Phage attaches to bacterial cell. Phage injects DNA.Phage DNA directs host cell to make more phage DNA and protein parts. New phages assemble. Cell lyses and releases new phages.

18. DO NOW: - What are the 3 parts of a nucleotide structure?

19. DNA stands for: -Deoxyribonucleic acid DNA is located: -in the nucleus of cells Function: -Tell the cells how to produce things that make you up (Blueprint) - Proteins Gene: -Segment of DNA that codes for a protein

20. 10.2 DNA and RNA are polymers of nucleotides ▪The monomer unit of DNA and RNA = nucleotide Each nucleotide contains a: –Nitrogenous base –5-carbon sugar –Phosphate group Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

21. ▪DNA and RNA are polymers called polynucleotides –A sugar-phosphate backbone is formed by covalent bonding between the phosphate of one nucleotide and the sugar of the next nucleotide –Nitrogenous bases extend from the sugar-phosphate backbone Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Animation: DNA and RNA Structure

22. Sugar-phosphate backbone DNA nucleotide Phosphate group Nitrogenous base Sugar DNA polynucleotide DNA nucleotide Sugar (deoxyribose) Thymine (T) Nitrogenous base (A, G, C, or T) Phosphate group

23. Sugar (deoxyribose) Thymine (T) Nitrogenous base (A, G, C, or T) Phosphate group

24. Pyrimidines Guanine (G) Adenine (A) Cytosine (C)Thymine (T) Purines ● The 4 Nitrogenous bases of DNA:

25. Sugar (ribose ) Uracil (U) Nitrogenous base (A, G, C, or U) Phosphate group

26. Ribose Cytosine Uracil Phosphate Guanine Adenine

27. 10.3 DNA is a double-stranded helix ▪James D. Watson and Francis Crick deduced the secondary structure of DNA, with X-ray crystallography data from Rosalind Franklin and Maurice Wilkins Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

28. ▪DNA is composed of two polynucleotide chains joined together by hydrogen bonding between bases, twisted into a helical shape –The sugar-phosphate backbone is on the outside –The nitrogenous bases are perpendicular to the backbone in the interior –Specific pairs of bases give the helix a uniform shape –A pairs with T, forming two hydrogen bonds –G pairs with C, forming three hydrogen bonds Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Animation: DNA Double Helix

33. Twist

34. Hydrogen bond Base pair Partial chemical structureComputer model Ribbon model

35. Base pair Ribbon model

36. Hydrogen bond Partial chemical structure

37. Computer model

38. DNA REPLICATION Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

39. 10.4 DNA replication depends on specific base pairing DNA replication follows a semiconservative model: ▪Half the original DNA molecule is saved, or conserved in the daughter molecules. This is why the process is called semi-conservative. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Animation: DNA Replication Overview

40. 1. The two DNA strands separate 2. Each strand is used as a pattern to produce a complementary strand, using specific base pairing 3. Each new DNA helix has one old strand with one new strand

41. Parental molecul e of DNA

42. Parental molecul e of DNA Nucleotides Both parental strands serve as templates

43. Parental molecul e of DNA Nucleotides Both parental strands serve as templates Two identical daughter molecules of DNA

44. ▪DNA replication begins at the origins of replication –DNA unwinds at the origin to produce a “bubble” –Replication proceeds in both directions from the origin –Replication ends when products from the bubbles merge with each other 10.5 DNA replication proceeds in two directions at many sites simultaneously Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

45. DNA replication occurs in the 5’→ 3’ direction -Replication is continuous on the 3’ → 5’ template -Replication is discontinuous on the 5’→ 3’ template, forming short segments ●What does 5’ and 3’ mean? Indicates the carbon numbers in the DNA's sugar backbone. The 5' carbon has a phosphate group attached to it and the 3' carbon a hydroxyl group. This asymmetry gives a DNA strand a "direction". 10.5 DNA replication proceeds in two directions at many sites simultaneously

46. Animation: Leading Strand 10.5 DNA replication proceeds in two directions at many sites simultaneously ▪Proteins involved in DNA replication –DNA polymerase adds nucleotides to a growing chain –DNA ligase joins small fragments into a continuous chain –Helicase unwinds the DNA strand –Primase tells DNA polymerase where to start; “primer” Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Animation: Lagging Strand Animation: DNA Replication Review Animation: Origins of Replication

47. Origin of replication Parental strand Daughter strand Bubble Two daughter DNA molecules

48. 3′ end 5′ end 3′ end 5′ end 3′3′ 5′5′ 2′2′ 4′4′ 1′1′ 3′3′ 5′5′ 2′2′ 4′4′ 1′1′ P P P P P P P P

49. Parental DNA 3′3′ 5′5′ DNA polymerase molecule DNA ligase 3′3′ 5′5′ Overall direction of replication Daughter strand synthesized continuously 3′3′ 5′5′ 3′3′ 5′5′ Daughter strand synthesized in pieces

50. THE FLOW OF GENETIC INFORMATION FROM DNA TO RNA TO PROTEIN Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

51. 10.6 The DNA genotype is expressed as proteins, which provide the molecular basis for phenotypic traits ▪A gene is a sequence of DNA that directs the synthesis of a specific protein –DNA is transcribed into RNA –RNA is translated into protein ▪The presence and action of proteins determine the phenotype of an organism Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

52. 10.6 The DNA genotype is expressed as proteins, which provide the molecular basis for phenotypic traits ▪Demonstrating the connections between genes and proteins –The one gene–one enzyme hypothesis was based on studies of inherited metabolic diseases –The one gene–one protein hypothesis expands the relationship to proteins other than enzymes –The one gene–one polypeptide hypothesis recognizes that some proteins are composed of multiple polypeptides Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

53. Central Dogma

55. Do Now 1.What essential role does tRNA play in translation? 2. What are the steps in the central dogma?

56. Cytoplasm Nucleus DNA

57. Cytoplasm Nucleus DNA Transcription RNA

58. Cytoplasm Nucleus DNA Transcription RNA Translation Protein

59. Beadle and Tatum One Gene : One Enzyme (Mutants – Arginine)

60. 10.7 Genetic information written in codons is translated into amino acid sequences ▪The sequence of nucleotides in DNA provides a code for constructing a protein –Protein construction requires a conversion of a nucleotide sequence to an amino acid sequence –Transcription rewrites the DNA code into RNA, using the same nucleotide “language” –Each “word” is a codon, consisting of three nucleotides –Translation involves switching from the nucleotide “language” to amino acid “language” –Each amino acid is specified by a codon –64 codons are possible –Some amino acids have more than one possible codon Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

61. Polypeptide Translation Transcription Gene 1 DNA molecule DNA strand Codon Amino acid Gene 2 Gene 3 RNA

62. Polypeptide Translation Transcription DNA strand Codon Amino acid RNA

63. 10.8 What is a codon? ▪Codon: A three-nucleotide sequence in mRNA that specifies a particular amino acid or polypeptide termination signal; the basic unit of the genetic code.

64. ~ Meth-i-a-nine

65. 10.8 The genetic code is the Rosetta stone of life ▪Characteristics of the genetic code –Triplet: Three nucleotides specify one amino acid –61 codons correspond to amino acids –AUG codes for methionine and signals the start of transcription –3 “stop” codons signal the end of translation Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

66. 10.8 The genetic code is the Rosetta stone of life –Redundant: More than one codon for some amino acids –Unambiguous: Any codon for one amino acid does not code for any other amino acid –Does not contain spacers or punctuation: Codons are adjacent to each other with no gaps in between –Nearly universal Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

68. First base Third base Second base

69. + 3 nucleotides needed to make one of the 20 amino acids = triplet code ■ QUESTION: What amino acid does CAC code for? Some amino acids have multiple triplet codes: Ex: Val has → GUU GUC GUA GUG

70. Strand to be transcribed DNA

71. Strand to be transcribed DNA Start codon RNA Transcription Stop codon

72. Strand to be transcribed DNA Start codon RNA Transcription Stop codon Polypeptide Translation Met Lys Phe

73. 10.9 Transcription produces genetic messages in the form of RNA ▪Overview of transcription –The two DNA strands separate –One strand is used as a pattern to produce an RNA chain, using specific base pairing –For A in DNA, U is placed in RNA –RNA polymerase catalyzes the reaction Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

74. 10.9 Transcription produces genetic messages in the form of RNA ▪Stages of transcription 1.Initiation: RNA polymerase binds to a promoter, where the helix unwinds and transcription starts 1.Elongation: RNA nucleotides are added to the chain 1.Termination: RNA polymerase reaches a terminator sequence and detaches from the template Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Animation: Transcription

75. DO NOW: 1.SHARE the graphic organizer with me 2.Take out protein synthesis flow chart - compare with a partner

76. TATAAA BOX = ● Many eukaryotic genes have a conserved TATA box located 25-35 base pairs before the transcription start site of a gene ● Proteins called transcription factors can bind to the TATA box and recruit an enzyme called RNA polymerase, which synthesizes RNA from DNA. ● TAC site actually where it starts!

77. RNA polymerase Newly made RNA Direction of transcription Template strand of DNA RNA nucleotides

78. Terminator DNA DNA of gene RNA polymerase Initiation Promoter DNA 1 Elongation 2 Area shown in Figure 10.9A Termination 3 Growing RNA polymerase Completed RNA

79. 10.10 Eukaryotic RNA is processed before leaving the nucleus ▪Messenger RNA (mRNA) contains codons for protein sequences ▪Eukaryotic mRNA has interrupting (noncoding) sequences called introns, separating the coding regions called exons. ▪Many uses of introns to help cell function and enhance gene expression.

80. 10.10 Eukaryotic RNA is processed before leaving the nucleus ▪Eukaryotic mRNA undergoes processing before leaving the nucleus –Cap added to 5’ end: single guanine nucleotide –Tail added to 3’ end: Poly-A tail of 50–250 adenines –RNA splicing: removal of introns and joining of exons to produce a continuous coding sequence Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

81. Why is the cap and tail important? ● These structures increase the stability of the mRNA as it moves through the cytoplasm and also help it to interact with the components necessary for protein synthesis.

82. RNA transcript with cap and tail Exons spliced together Introns removed Transcription Addition of cap and tail Tail DNA mRNA Cap Exon Intron Coding sequence Nucleus Cytoplasm

83. DO NOW: I hope you all had a wonderful holiday ●Finish the translation section on your worksheet!

84. 10.11 Transfer RNA molecules serve as interpreters during translation ▪Transfer RNA (tRNA) molecules match an amino acid to its corresponding mRNA codon –tRNA structure allows it to convert one language to the other –An amino acid attachment site allows each tRNA to carry a specific amino acid –An anticodon allows the tRNA to bind to a specific mRNA codon, complementary in sequence –A pairs with U, G pairs with C Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

85. Anticodon Amino acid attachment site RNA polynucleotide chain Hydrogen bond

87. 10.12 Ribosomes build polypeptides ▪Translation occurs on the surface of the ribosome –Ribosomes have two subunits: small and large –Each subunit is composed of ribosomal RNAs and proteins –Ribosomal subunits come together during translation –Ribosomes have binding sites for mRNA and tRNAs Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

88. tRNA molecules Growing polypeptide Large subunit Small subunit mRNA

89. tRNA-binding sites Large subunit Small subunit mRNA binding site

90. mRNA Next amino acid to be added to polypeptide Growing polypeptide Codons tRNA

91. 10.13 An initiation codon marks the start of an mRNA message ▪Initiation brings together the components needed to begin RNA synthesis ▪Initiation occurs in two steps 1.mRNA binds to a small ribosomal subunit, and the first tRNA binds to mRNA at the start codon –The start codon reads AUG and codes for methionine –The first tRNA has the anticodon UAC 2.A large ribosomal subunit joins the small subunit, allowing the ribosome to function –The first tRNA occupies the P site, which will hold the growing peptide chain –The A site is available to receive the next tRNA Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

92. Start of genetic message End

93. Small ribosomal subunit Start codon P site mRNA A site Large ribosomal subunit Initiator tRNA Met 2 1

94. 10.14 Elongation adds amino acids to the polypeptide chain until a stop codon terminates translation ▪Elongation is the addition of amino acids to the polypeptide chain ▪Each cycle of elongation has three steps 1.Codon recognition: next tRNA binds to the mRNA at the A site 2.Peptide bond formation: joining of the new amino acid to the chain –Amino acids on the tRNA at the P site are attached by a covalent bond to the amino acid on the tRNA at the A site Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

97. 3.Translocation: tRNA is released from the P site and the ribosome moves tRNA from the A site into the P site Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. 10.14 Elongation adds amino acids to the polypeptide chain until a stop codon terminates translation

101. ▪Elongation continues until the ribosome reaches a stop codon ▪Applying Your Knowledge How many cycles of elongation are required to produce a protein with 100 amino acids? ▪Termination –The completed polypeptide is released –The ribosomal subunits separate –mRNA is released and can be translated again Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. 10.14 Elongation adds amino acids to the polypeptide chain until a stop codon terminates translation Animation: Translation

103. Polypeptide A site 1 Codon recognition Codons Amino acid Anticodon P site mRNA

104. Polypeptide A site 1 Codon recognition Codons Amino acid Anticodon P site mRNA 2 Peptide bond formation

105. Polypeptide A site 1 Codon recognition Codons Amino acid Anticodon P site mRNA 2 Peptide bond formation 3 Translocation New peptide bond

106. Polypeptide A site 1 Codon recognition Codons Amino acid Anticodon P site mRNA 2 Peptide bond formation 3 Translocation New peptide bond Stop codon mRNA movement

107. 10.15 Review: The flow of genetic information in the cell is DNA → RNA → protein ▪Does translation represent: –DNA → RNA or RNA → protein? ▪Where does the information for producing a protein originate: –DNA or RNA? ▪Which one has a linear sequence of codons: –rRNA, mRNA, or tRNA? ▪Which one directly influences the phenotype: –DNA, RNA, or protein? Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

108. Each amino acid attaches to its proper tRNA with the help of a specific enzyme and ATP. mRNA is transcribed from a DNA template. 2 1 RNA polymerase Amino acid DNA Transcription mRNA tRNA ATP Translation Enzyme 3 The mRNA, the first tRNA, and the ribo- somal sub-units come together. Initiator tRNA Large ribosoma l subunit Anticodo n Initiation of polypeptide synthesis Small ribosoma l subunit mRN A Start Codon New peptide bond forming Growing polypeptid e 4 A succession of tRNAs add their amino acids to the polypeptide chain as the mRNA is moved through the ribosome, one codon at a time. Elongatio n Codons mRN A Polypepti de 5 The ribosome recognizes a stop codon. The poly- peptide is terminated and released. Termination Stop codon

109. mRNA is transcribed from a DNA template. RNA polymerase Each amino acid attaches to its proper tRNA with the help of a specific enzyme and ATP. Amino acid DNA Transcription mRNA tRNA ATP Translation Enzyme The mRNA, the first tRNA, and the ribosomal sub-units come together. Initiator tRNA Large ribosomal subunit Anticodon Initiation of polypeptide synthesis Small ribosomal subunit mRNA Start Codon 1 2 3

110. New peptide bond forming Growing polypeptide 4 A succession of tRNAs add their amino acids to the polypeptide chain as the mRNA is moved through the ribosome, one codon at a time. Elongation Codons mRNA Polypeptide 5 The ribosome recognizes a stop codon. The polypeptide is terminated and released. Termination Stop codon

111. Secretory Pathway - How a protein leaves the cell As translation is ending, the ribosome “docks” at the rough ER 1.Rough endoplasmic reticulum 2.Golgi apparatus 3.Secretion vesicle (leaving the cell) 4.plasma membrane → OUT! https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KWQyURdNlDk

113. 4 Structures of Proteins ●Primary structure: the linear arrangment of amino acids in a protein and the location of covalent linkages such as disulfide bonds between amino acids. ●Secondary structure: areas of folding or coiling within a protein; examples include alpha helices and pleated sheets, which are stabilized by hydrogen bonding. ●Tertiary structure: the final three-dimensional structure of a protein, which results from a large number of non-covalent interactions between amino acids. ●Quaternary structure: non-covalent interactions that bind multiple polypeptides into a single, larger protein. Hemoglobin has quaternary structure due to association of two alpha globin and two beta globin polyproteins.

115. 10.16 Mutations can change the meaning of genes ▪A mutation is a change in the nucleotide sequence of DNA –Base substitutions: replacement of one nucleotide with another –Effect depends on whether there is an amino acid change that alters the function of the protein –Deletions or insertions –Alter the reading frame of the mRNA, so that nucleotides are grouped into different codons –Lead to significant changes in amino acid sequence downstream of mutation –Cause a nonfunctional polypeptide to be produced Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

116. 10.16 Mutations can change the meaning of genes ▪Mutations can be –Spontaneous: due to errors in DNA replication or recombination –Induced by mutagens –High-energy radiation –Chemicals Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

117. Normal hemoglobin DNAMutant hemoglobin DNA Sickle-cell hemoglobin Normal hemoglobin mRNA ValGlu

118. Normal gene Protein substitution deletion Missing mRNA Met Lys Phe Ser Ala Met Lys Phe Gly Ala Met Lys Leu Ala His

121. Types of Proteins 1. Structural functions in support, examples: elastin, collagen, and keratin 2. Storage food source, examples: ovalbumin and casein 3. Transport moves other substances, examples: hemoglobin and cell membrane proteins 4. Hormonal coordinates bodily activities, example insulin, 5. Contractile movement, examples: actin and myosin 6. Antibodies defense, examples: Ig.E, IgA, and Ig.G 7. Enzymes aid in chemical reactions, examples: amylase and proteases

122. MICROBIAL GENETICS Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

123. 10.17 Viral DNA may become part of the host chromosome ▪Viruses have two types of reproductive cycles –Lytic cycle –Viral particles are produced using host cell components –The host cell lyses, and viruses are released Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

124. 10.17 Viral DNA may become part of the host chromosome ▪Viruses have two types of reproductive cycles –Lysogenic cycle –Viral DNA is inserted into the host chromosome by recombination –Viral DNA is duplicated along with the host chromosome during each cell division –The inserted phage DNA is called a prophage –Most prophage genes are inactive –Environmental signals can cause a switch to the lytic cycle Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Animation: Phage T4 Lytic Cycle Animation: Phage Lambda Lysogenic and Lytic Cycles

125. Bacterial chromosome Phage injects DNA Phage Phage DNA Attaches to cell 2 1 3 Phage DNA circularizes Lytic cycle 4 New phage DNA and proteins are synthesized Phages assemble Cell lyses, releasing phages

126. Bacterial chromosome Phage injects DNA Phage Phage DNA Attaches to cell 2 1 3 Phage DNA circularizes Lytic cycle 4 New phage DNA and proteins are synthesized Phages assemble Cell lyses, releasing phages 6 5 7 Phage DNA inserts into the bacterial chromosome by recombination Lysogenic bacterium reproduces normally, replicating the prophage at each cell division Prophage Lysogenic cycle Many cell divisions OR

127. Bacterial chromosome Phage injects DNA Phage Phage DNA Attaches to cell Phage DNA circularizes Lytic cycle New phage DNA and proteins are synthesized Phages assemble Cell lyses, releasing phages 1 2 3 4

128. Bacterial chromosome Phage injects DNA Phage DNA circularizes Phage DNA inserts into the bacterial chromosome by recombination Lysogenic bacterium reproduces normally, replicating the prophage at each cell division Prophage Lysogenic cycle Many cell divisions 5 7 6 2 Phage Phage DNA Attaches to cell 1

129. 10.18 CONNECTION: Many viruses cause disease in animals and plants ▪Both DNA viruses and RNA viruses cause disease in animals ▪Reproductive cycle of an RNA virus –Entry –Glycoprotein spikes contact host cell receptors –Viral envelope fuses with host plasma membrane –Uncoating of viral particle to release the RNA genome –mRNA synthesis using a viral enzyme –Protein synthesis –RNA synthesis of new viral genome –Assembly of viral particles Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

130. 10.18 CONNECTION: Many viruses cause disease in animals and plants ▪Some animal viruses reproduce in the cell nucleus ▪Most plant viruses are RNA viruses –They breach the outer protective layer of the plant –They spread from cell to cell through plasmodesmata –Infection can spread to other plants by animals, humans, or farming practices Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Animation: Simplified Viral Reproductive Cycle

131. Plasma membrane of host cell VIRUS Entry Uncoating Viral RNA (genome) Viral RNA (genome) 2 1 3 Membranous envelope Protein coat Glycoprotein spike RNA synthesis by viral enzyme Template RNA synthesis (other strand) Protein synthesis mRNA 4 5 6 New viral genome New viral proteins Assembly 7 Exit

132. Plasma membrane of host cell VIR US Entry Viral RNA (genome) Viral RNA (genome) 2 Membranous envelope Protein coat Glycoprotein spike Uncoating RNA synthesis by viral enzyme 3 1

133. Template RNA synthesis (other strand) Protein synthesis New viral genome mRNA New viral proteins Assembly Exit 4 5 6 7

134. 10.19 EVOLUTION CONNECTION: Emerging viruses threaten human health ▪How do emerging viruses cause human diseases? –Mutation –RNA viruses mutate rapidly –Contact between species –Viruses from other animals spread to humans –Spread from isolated populations Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

135. 10.19 EVOLUTION CONNECTION: Emerging viruses threaten human health ▪Examples of emerging viruses –HIV –Ebola virus –West Nile virus –RNA coronavirus causing severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) –Avian flu virus Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

139. 10.20 The AIDS virus makes DNA on an RNA template ▪AIDS is caused by HIV, human immunodeficiency virus ▪HIV is a retrovirus, containing –Two copies of its RNA genome –Reverse transcriptase, an enzyme that produces DNA from an RNA template Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

140. ▪HIV duplication –Reverse transcriptase uses RNA to produce one DNA strand –Reverse transcriptase produces the complementary DNA strand –Viral DNA enters the nucleus and integrates into the chromosome, becoming a provirus –Provirus DNA is used to produce mRNA –mRNA is translated to produce viral proteins –Viral particles are assembled and leave the host cell Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. 10.20 The AIDS virus makes DNA on an RNA template Animation: HIV Reproductive Cycle

141. Reverse transcriptase RNA (two identical strands) Protein coat Glycoprotein Envelope

142. Double- stranded DNA Viral RNA and proteins DNA strand Viral RNA N UCLEUS C YTOPLASM Chromosomal DNA Provirus DNA RNA 2 1 5 3 4 6

143. 10.21 Viroids and prions are formidable pathogens in plants and animals ▪Some infectious agents are made only of RNA or protein –Viroids: circular RNA molecules that infect plants –Replicate within host cells without producing proteins –Interfere with plant growth –Prions: infectious proteins that cause brain diseases in animals –Misfolded forms of normal brain proteins –Convert normal protein to misfolded form Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

144. 10.22 Bacteria can transfer DNA in three ways ▪Three mechanisms allow transfer of bacterial DNA –Transformation is the uptake of DNA from the surrounding environment –Transduction is gene transfer through bacteriophages –Conjugation is the transfer of DNA from a donor to a recipient bacterial cell through a cytoplasmic bridge ▪Recombination of the transferred DNA with the host bacterial chromosome leads to new combinations of genes Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

145. DNA enters cell Bacterial chromosome (DNA) Fragment of DNA from another bacterial cell

146. Phage Fragment of DNA from another bacterial cell (former phage host)

147. Mating bridge Sex pili Donor cell (“male”) Recipient cell (“female”)

148. Donated DNA Recipient cell’s chromosome Crossovers Recombinant chromosome Degraded DNA

149. 10.23 Bacterial plasmids can serve as carriers for gene transfer ▪Plasmids are small circular DNA molecules that are separate from the bacterial chromosome –F factor is involved in conjugation –When integrated into the chromosome, transfers bacterial genes from donor to recipient –When separate, transfers F-factor plasmid –R plasmids transfer genes for antibiotic resistance by conjugation Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

150. Male (donor) cell Origin of F replication Bacterial chromosome F factor starts replication and transfer of chromosome F factor (integrated) Recipient cell Only part of the chromosome transfers Recombination can occur

151. Male (donor) cell Bacterial chromosome F factor starts replication and transfer F factor (plasmid) Plasmid completes transfer and circularizes Cell now male

152. Plasmids

153. Sugar- phosphate backbone Deoxy- ribose Ribose Nucleotide Sugar Phosphate group DNA Nitrogenous base Nitrogenous base Polynucleotide DNA RNA Sugar CGATCGAT CGAUCGAU

154. Codons Growing polypeptide Amino acid tRNA Anticodon Large ribosomal subunit mRNA Small ribosom al subunit

155. comes in three kinds called RNA (d ) (e) (f) is performed by organelles called use amino-acid-bearing molecules called (h ) molecules are components of one or more polymers made from monomers called is performed by enzyme called is a polymer made from monomers called DNA (a) (b ) (c) Protei n (g ) (i)

156. 1.Compare and contrast the structures of DNA and RNA 2.Describe how DNA replicates 3.Explain how a protein is produced 4.Distinguish between the functions of mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA in translation 5.Determine DNA, RNA, and protein sequences when given any complementary sequence You should now be able to Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

157. 6.Distinguish between exons and introns and describe the steps in RNA processing that lead to a mature mRNA 7.Explain the relationship between DNA genotype and the action of proteins in influencing phenotype 8.Distinguish between the effects of base substitution and insertion or deletion mutations You should now be able to Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

158. 9.Distinguish between lytic and lysogenic viral reproductive cycles and describe how RNA viruses are duplicated within a host cell 10.Explain how an emerging virus can become a threat to human health 11.Identify three methods of transfer for bacterial genes 12.Distinguish between viroids and prions 13.Describe the effects of transferring plasmids from donor to recipient cells You should now be able to Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.