1. Accommodating Differences in Literacy Learners: Part II Gary A. Troia, Ph.D. Michigan State University

2. Instructional Methods & Arrangements Direct Instruction  students master lower-level skills before higher-level skills are taught  task analyses are performed to sequence learning objectives to be mastered from least to most difficult  skills with high utility are taught before those that are less critical  potentially confusing details (e.g., b/d) are not introduced in close temporal order  generalization is programmed through the use of novel exemplars during assessment  tight control over stimuli and materials is maintained  exceptions are introduced only after mastery has been achieved  little reliance on incidental learning  scripts often are used  placement and mastery tests are used to monitor student progress  modeling, guided practice with explicit feedback and prompts/cues, and many opportunities for independent practice are used  responses and rules are verbalized repetitively  behavioral, reductionist/positivist teaching paradigm

3. Cooperative Learning Groups  3-5 students work together in a heterogeneous group to master instructional content  teacher serves as facilitator/mediator who ensures that  all students actively participate  contributions of all members are validated  cooperative behavior is frequently and explicitly modeled, reviewed, and reinforced  to increase participation, can limit access to only one set of materials, randomly select one student's project for group grade, or limit contributions through token cost system  students with disabilities may not contribute nor benefit as much as other students  differentiated materials and more intensive instructional support may be necessary for students with disabilities  there are a number of different formats for cooperative groups  jigsaw  counterpart group  think-pair-share  student teams-achievement divisions (STAD)  teams-games-tournaments (TGT)

4. Peer-Mediated Learning  students pair to form a tutor/tutee relationship to learn content, skills, or strategies  tutor should be only somewhat more competent than tutee so that both benefit from experience  both members of dyad should have the opportunity to act as tutor  all students must be oriented to purposes, responsibilities, guidelines, materials, and tactics for explanations, reinforcement, and error correction; initially there is much preparatory work for the teacher  time on task is maximized because teacher does not need to be present  instruction can be individualized with ongoing teacher monitoring and support  students should be provided opportunities to reflect on tutoring experiences and give feedback to the teacher  multiple formats are possible  same-age or cross-age peer tutoring  reciprocal peer tutoring  Class-Wide Peer Tutoring (CWPT)  Peer-Assisted Learning Strategies (PALS)

5. How to Teach A Lesson General Considerations  monitor and adjust instructional language  augment verbal information through the use of key phrases, paralinguistic and extralinguistic cues, and graphic cues  avoid overuse of initiation-response-evaluation (IRE) cycle that serves to assess performance rather than teach  monitor student comprehension by asking students to repeat, rephrase, or summarize the information given  monitor academic learning time because it correlates highly with student achievement  monitor student progress  promote motivation by  providing choices for tasks, problems, and materials  welcoming student input regarding learning goals, objectives, and activities  establishing personal relevancy of activities by integrating student interest and experience in authentic learning tasks  using effective behavior management techniques such as academic contracting and positive reinforcement  monitor difficulty of content and skills; perform task analyses to ensure that prerequisite skills are evident or taught  teach students academic survival strategies such as  listening strategies  note taking strategies  study strategies  test taking strategies  memory strategies