1. 22
Lecture
Long-Term Financing

2. Reducing Exchange Rate Risk
The exchange rate risk from financing with bonds in foreign currencies can be reduced in various ways.
Offsetting cash inflows
Foreign currency receipts can help offset bond payments in the same currency.
In particular, an MNC can aggregate its cash inflows from all euro-zone countries to cover the payments for its euro-denominated bonds.

3. Reducing Exchange Rate Risk
Forward contracts
A firm may hedge its exchange rate risk through the forward market.
However, the firm may not be able to save costs due to interest rate parity.
Currency swaps
A currency swap enables firms to exchange currencies at periodic intervals.
It can be a useful alternative to forward or futures contracts.

4. Reducing Exchange Rate Risk
Parallel loans
In a parallel (or back-to-back) loan, two parties simultaneously provide loans to each other (or to a subsidiary of the other party) with an agreement to repay at a specified point in the future.

5. Illustration of A Parallel Loan
Subsidiary of
U.K.- based MNC
that is located
in the U.S.
Provision
of loans
U.S.- based MNC
in the U.K.
British Parent
U.S. Parent 
Repayment
of loans in
the currency
that was
borrowed 

6. Reducing Exchange Rate Risk
Diversifying among currencies
A firm may issue bonds in several foreign currencies for diversity.
To avoid the higher transaction costs associated with multiple bond issues, the firm may develop a currency cocktail bond.
One popular currency cocktail is the Special Drawing Right (SDR).

7. Interest Rate Risk from Debt Financing
An MNC must also decide on the maturity that it should use for its debt.
If the bond term is too short, the MNC may have to refinance at a higher interest rate.
However, if the bond term matches the expected business life, the MNC is obligated to continue paying interest at the same rate even when market interest rates fall.

8. The Debt Maturity Decision
Before making the debt maturity decision, MNCs may want to assess the yield curves of the countries in which they need funds.
A yield curve is shaped by the demand for and supply of funds at various maturity levels in a country’s debt market.
An upward-sloping yield curve means that the annualized yields are lower for short-term debt than for long-term debt.

9. Yield Curves as of February 8, 2004

10. The Debt Maturity Decision
Some MNCs use a country’s yield curve to compare the annualized rates for different debt maturities.
Other MNCs use the yield curve as an indicator for future interest rate movements.
Then MNCs can decide whether to lock in a long-term rate or borrow for a short-term period and refinance in the near future.

11. The Fixed versus Floating Rate Decision
MNCs that wish to issue a long-term bond but want to avoid the prevailing fixed rate may consider floating rate bonds.
For example, the coupon rate is frequently tied to the London Interbank Offer Rate (LIBOR).
If the coupon rate is floating, forecasts are required for both exchange rates and interest rates.

12. Hedging with Interest Rate Swaps
When MNCs issue floating-rate bonds that expose them to interest rate risk, they may use interest rate swaps to hedge the risk.
Interest rate swaps enable a firm to exchange fixed rate payments for variable rate payments, and vice versa.
Bond issuers use swaps to reconfigure their future cash flows in a way that offsets their payments to bondholders.

13. Hedging with Interest Rate Swaps
Financial intermediaries are usually involved in swap agreements. They match up participants and also assume the default risk involved for a fee.
In a plain vanilla swap, the floating rate payer is typically highly sensitive to interest rate changes and seeks to reduce interest rate risk.

14. Hedging with Interest Rate Swaps
Continuing financial innovation has resulted in a number of variations:
Accretion swap – increasing notional value
Amortizing swap – decreasing notional value
Basis (floating-for-floating) swap
Callable swap
Forward swap – swap begins at a future date
Putable swap
Zero-coupon swap
Swaption – swap option

15. Hedging with Interest Rate Swaps
The International Swaps and Derivatives Association (ISDA) is frequently credited with the swap market’s standardization.
The ISDA is a global trade association representing leading participants in the privately negotiated derivatives industry.
It developed the Master Agreement and pioneered efforts to identify and reduce risk sources in the derivatives and risk management business.

16. Source: Adopted from South-Western/Thomson Learning © 2006