1. Examining the pedagogical foundation of modern educational computer games Presenter: Ming-Chuan Chen Advisor: Ming-Puu Chen Date: 3/16/2009 Kebritchi, M. & Hirumi, A. (2008). Examining the pedagogical foundations of modern educational computer games. Computers & Education, 51(4), 1729-1743.

2. 2 Introduction Modern educational games are thought to be effective tools for teaching hard and complex procedures. (Charles & McAlister, 2004; Holland, Jenkins, & Squire, 2003; Sheffield, 2005) –(1) Using action instead of explanation –(2) Creating personal motivation and satisfaction –(3) Accommodating multiple learning styles and skills –(4) Reinforcing mastery skills –(5) Providing interactive and decision making context This study examines the pedagogical foundations of modern educational (computer video) games. –Many literatures emphasizes the importance of applying established instructional strategies and theories to design educational games. –55 educational computer games & 50 relevant articles

3. 3 The direct instructional approach was applied to design Destination Math to teach mathematics. –Grounded in the behaviorist learning theory The instructional events associated with the Direct Instruction Strategy : (Joyce, Weil, & Showers,1992) (1) Orientation (2) Presentation (3) Structured practice (4) Guided practice (5) Independent practice Destination Math oriented and presented learners with a mathematics concept, then facilitated learning through practice and feedback. –Like traditional drill and practice programs Results - Direct instruction

4. 4 Results - Experiential learning theory Experiential learning: –Engaging learners in direct [real-life] experience and direct their focus on learning reflection to increase their knowledge, skills, and values (Dewey, 1938) Concrete experience is the heart of the experiential learning approach –Knowledge is constructed, not transmitted, as a result of experiencing and interacting with the environment. 5 instructional strategies: (1) Learning by doing (2) Experiential learning (3) Guided experiential Learning (4) Case-method teaching (5) Combination of experiential & Inquiry-based learning

5. 5 Results - Experiential learning theory (a) Learning by doing & (b) Experiential learning Learning by Doing: –To foster skill development and the learning of factual information in the context of how it will be used –Ex: BioHazard, La Jungla de Optica & Daelalus’ End The instructional events to facilitate Learning by Doing: (Schank et al., 1999) –(1) Define goals (2) Set mission (3) Present cover story (4) Establish roles (5) Operate scenarios (6) Provide resources (7) Provide feedback Experiential learning: – Using learner experiences to facilitate learning –Based on the belief that people learn best by doing (Schank et al., 1999) –Ex: Global Conflicts

6. 6 Results - Experiential learning theory (c) Guided experiential learning (GEL) & (d) Case-method teaching Guided experiential learning: –Student-centered instructional strategies did not work effectively unless additional guidance was provided (Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006; Mayer, 2004) –Ex: Full Spectrum Warrior & SLIM-ES3 –The components: (Clark, 2005) (1) Solve real problems from field (2) Activate relevant prior knowledge (3) Demonstrate how to solve (4) Apply what is learned by solving (5) Integrate learning so that it reflects real field conditions Case-method teaching: –Using Failure leadership stories to teach tacit knowledge of military leadership to US Army trainees –Using case-method teaching & Hollywood storytelling techniques to develop fictional leadership case studies (Hill, Gordon, & Kim, 2004) –Ex: Army Excellence in Leadership (AXL)

7. 7 Results - Experiential learning theory (e) Experiential learning & inquiry-based learning Inquiry-based learning –Confrontation with the problem –Data gathering, including verification and experimentation –Organizing, formulating rules or explanation –Analysis of inquiry process and development of more effective processes Experiential learning & inquiry-based learning –Hands-on actions and reflections are the two main components of the learning process –The context of the learning is considered as a co-determinant of meaning –Ex: Quest Atlantis

8. 8 Results – Discovery learning theory Discovery learning: –Instruction through which students interact with their environment by exploring and manipulating objects, wrestling with questions and controversies, or performing experiments” (Ormrod, 1995, p. 442) –Students are more likely to remember concepts that they discover on their own. 2 instructional strategies: (1) Discovery learning (2) Guided-discovery & inquiry-based learning

9. 9 Results - Discovery learning theory (a) Discovery learning The instructional events of The Monkey Wrench Conspiracy : (Prensky, 2006) –Ask questions that allow mistake and offer the learning topic –Provide feedback and reinforcement –Offer challenges, goals, & problems that are involving and relevant to the learners –Allow the learners to learn by performing authentic tasks. –Apply cognitive apprenticeship method. The instructional events of Gamenomics (2006) : –Present an event that exaggerates an economic concept –Challenge the learner to discover that concept –Place the knowledge where they can find it –Provide rewards

10. 10 Results - Discovery learning theory (b) Guided-discovery & inquiry-based learning Discover Babylon applies a guided discovery & an inquiry- based approach through the following features: (Roper, 2007) –Compelling simulations of real environments –Opportunities for guided discovery and unguided exploration. –Authentic and motivating challenges designed with Subject Matter experts –Immediate feedback to learners. – A question and answer tool that provides contextual information –Opportunities to learn by doing and learn through observation. –Scaffolding (e.g., clues to learning challenges) –Opportunities to moderate game levels, objectives & time

11. 11 Results – Situated cognition Situated cognition: –Knowledge is a product of its context, activity and culture within which it is developed and used. (Brown et al., 1989) –The situated cognition is rooted in the social development theory of Vygotsky (1978) in which social interaction plays a fundamental role in the development of cognition. 2 instructional strategies: (1)Situated learning in communities of practice (2)Cognitive apprenticeship

12. 12 Results - Situated cognition (a) Situated learning in community of practice Situated learning in community of practice: –Knowledge is taught in context of real-life application and occurs in relationships with a community of practice (Lave &Wenger, 1991). –Ex: Racing Academy & Fizzees The elements of situated learning : Stein (1998) –Content : higher order thinking and learners’ daily experience. –Context : sensitive to the tasks learners should complete –Community of practice : community through which learners reflect and form meaning. –Participation : the process of interactions and dialogue

13. 13 Results - Situated cognition (b) Cognitive apprenticeship Cognitive apprenticeship: –Knowledge is situated within authentic activities and taught through interaction with instructors (Brown et al., 1989). –Ex: simSchool & KM Quest Learning is promoted through: (Brown et al., 1989) –(a) Situated modeling tasks –(b) Coaching & scaffolding to complete the tasks –(c) Fading support

14. 14 Results – Constructivism Constructivist learning theories: –Knowledge is built by the learner, not supplied by the teacher (Bruckman, 1998; Piaget, 1967). 2 instructional strategies: (1)Constructivism (2)Community supported constructionist

15. 15 Results - Constructivism (a) Constructivism & (b) Community supported constructionist Constructivism : –New knowledge could be acquired more effectively if the learners were engaged in constructing products that were personally meaningful to them. –Ex: SuperCharged Community supported constructionist: –It emphasizes the importance of social aspect of learning environment. –Learning through interaction with other players, observing other players’ design, and altering their designs accordingly –Ex: Hephaestus

16. 16 Discussion and Conclusion The authentic problems in realistic contexts facilitate inquiry and exploration. 17/18 games simulated ‘‘real world” experiences Learner-centered approaches are gaining momentum in recent years. 17/18 games with explicit pedagogical foundations used learner- centered approaches. Games with learner-centered approaches are more effective and attractive to learners than games with basic drill and practice approaches. (Kebritchi, 2008) Guided experiential strategies are suggested to be more effective than unguided experiential strategies (Clark, 2005).