1. Products of Functions, Graphs, Games & Problems Irit Dinur Weizmann

2. Products For fun: to “see what happens” For “Hardness Amplification” (holy grail = prove that things are hard) Why would anyone want to multiply two functions ? graphs ? problems ? Given f that is a little hardconstruct f’ that is very hard Circuit complexity, average case complexity, communication complexity, Hardness of approximation

3. Products For fun: to “see what happens” For “Hardness Amplification” (holy grail = prove that things are hard) Why would anyone want to multiply two functions ? graphs ? problems ? Given f that is a little hardconstruct f’ that is very hard Circuit complexity, average case complexity, communication complexity, Hardness of approximation By taking f’ = f x f x … x f By taking f’ = f x f x … x f

4. P 1 x P 2 Numbers Strings Functions Graphs Games Computational Problems We can multiply many different objects

5. 1 1 0 1 1 0 011011 1011 1011 1011 1011 0001 0001 1011 1011 1011 1011 0001 0001 For example, here is how to multiply two strings: Direct Products of Strings / Functions

6. For example, here is how to multiply two strings: Direct Products of Strings / Functions sum (the alphabet stays the same, but harder to analyze) 1 1 0 1 1 0 011011 1011 1011 1011 1011 0001 0001 1011 1011 1011 1011 0001 0001

7. In [GGR] terms: is the property of being a direct product locally testable ? (answer: yes, with 2 queries) Testing Direct Products

8. Given: a very large and difficult problem (e.g. 3sat) Local to Global

9. Given: a very large and difficult problem (e.g. 3sat) Local to Global What is the dependence on the “graph topology” ? (i.e. which pairs of neighbors are being compared)

10. Testing Direct Products [Goldreich-Safra,D.-Reingold, D.-Goldenberg, Impagliazzo-Kabanets-Wigderson] k-substring Theorem [David-D.-Goldenberg-Kindler-Shinkar 2013] The property of being a direct sum is testable with 3 queries.

11. There are several natural graph products In the “strong direct product”: 1 2 3 123 u 1 u 2 ~ v 1 v 2 iff u 1 ~v 1 and u 2 ~ v 2 Multiplying Graphs ( u ~ v means u=v or u is adjacent to v ) 11 21 31 12 22 32 13 23 33 V(G 1 x G 2 ) = V(G 1 ) x V(G 2 )

12. Basic question: how do natural graph properties (such as: chromatic number, max-clique, expansion, …) Behave wrt the product operation If clique ( G 1 ) = m 1 and clique ( G 2 ) = m 2 then clique ( G 1 x G 2 ) = m 1 m 2 Generally, the answer is easy if the maximizing solution is itself a product, but often this is not true. Then, the analysis is challenging Multiplying Graphs If independent-set ( G 1 ) = m 1 and independent-set ( G 2 ) = m 2 then independent-set ( G 1 x G 2 ) = ?

13. Definition : The Shannon capacity of G is the limit of ( a(G k ) ) 1/k as k  infty [Shannon 1956] Lovasz 1979 computed the Shannon capacity of several graphs, e.g. C 5, by introducing the theta function C 7 is still open – (one of the most notorious problems in extremal combinatorics) Consider a transmission scheme of one symbol at a time, and draw a graph with an edge between each pair of symbols that might be confusable in transmission. a(G) = number of symbols transmittable with zero error a(G k ) = set of such words of length k (a(G k )) 1/k = effective alphabet size a(G) – stands for maximum independent set

14. Multiplying Games

15. Games (2-player 1-round) u u Alice U … v v Bob V … AliceBob Referee: random u  v u v A(u) B(v)

16. Games (2-player 1-round) u u Alice U … v v Bob V … Value ( G ) = maximal success probability, over all possible strategies

17. U = set of variablesV = set of 3sat clauses u u Alice U … v v Bob V … Label-Cover Problem : Given a game G, find value ( G ) Value ( G ) = maximal success probability, over all possible strategies Strong PCP Theorem: Label Cover is NP-hard to approximate [AS, ALMSS 1991] + [Raz 1995] FGLSS Games (2-player 1-round) The 3SAT game

18. PCP theorem: “gap-3SAT is NP-hard” Proof: By reduction from small gap to large gap, aka amplification The PCP Theorem [AS, ALMSS]

19. Multiplying Games A game is specified by its constraint-graph, so a product of two games can be defined by a product of two constraint graphs

20. X=

21. X= u1u1 u1u1 U1U1 … v1v1 v1v1 V1V1 … Π1: Σ1 Σ1Π1: Σ1 Σ1 u2u2 u2u2 U2U2 … v2v2 v2v2 V2V2 … Π2: Σ2 Σ2Π2: Σ2 Σ2

22. X= A : U 1 x U 2  Σ 1 x Σ 2 AliceBob B : V 1 x V 2  Σ 1 x Σ 2 u1u1 u1u1 U1U1 … v1v1 v1v1 V1V1 … Π1: Σ1 Σ1Π1: Σ1 Σ1 u2u2 u2u2 U2U2 … v2v2 v2v2 V2V2 … Π2: Σ2 Σ2Π2: Σ2 Σ2 u1u2u1u2 u1u2u1u2 U 1 x U 2 … v1v2v1v2 v1v2v1v2 V 1 x V 2 … Π1 Π2Π1 Π2

23. u 1 u 2 …u k U x … x U … v 1 v 2 …v k V x … x V … A : U k  Σ k AliceBob B : V k  Σ k Π 1 Π 2 … Π k k-fold product of a game Also called: the k-fold parallel repetition of a game

24. One obvious candidate is the direct product strategy. But it is not, in general, the best strategy.

25. Also: short proof for “strong PCP theorem” or “hardness of label-cover” Ideas extend to give a parallel repetition theorem for entangled games, i.e. when the two players share a quantum state [with Vidick & Steurer] BGLR “sliding scale”conjecture

26. One slide about the new proof 2. Define: 3. Show: 1. View a game as a linear operator acting on (Bob)-assignments

27. Summary Direct product of strings & functions and a related local-to-global lifting theorem Direct product of games and new parallel repetition theorem Direct products of computational problems ?? e.g. for graph problems (max-cut, vertex-cover,... )