1. Formal Reasoning and Science Teaching Nicolaos C. Valanides (1996). Formal Reasoning and Science Teaching. School Science and Mathematics, 96(2), 99-107. Presenters: Wei-Chih Hsu Professor: Ming-Puu Chen Date: 11/24/2007

2. 2 Introduction zThis Study is about performance of 195 seventh-, eighth-, and ninth-grade students on the Test of Logical Thinking (TOLT). zThe TOLT was used to identify differences related to five reasoning modes among the three classes and between male and female students. zThis Study examined is whether chronological age (in months) and achievement in science, mathematics, and Greek language contribute significantly to the prediction of performance on problems related to the five reasoning abilities. zThe underlying structure of student performance on problems related to these reasoning modes is also investigated.

3. 3 Literature review zDevelopmental psychologists propose a distinction between declarative/figurative knowledge and operative/procedural knowledge. zAccording to Anderson (1980) ydeclarative knowledge comprises the facts that we know; yprocedural knowledge comprises the skills we know how to perform.  Piaget‘s work intensified interest in operative knowledge and the development of reasoning abilities is considered to be an important objective in education.

4. 4 Literature review zCognitive development is also the main topic of theoretical debates (Demetriou, 1987, 1988) where suggestions for revisions and deviations(deviation 偏差 ) from Piaget's theory are proposed. zSeveral research studies provide evidence which does not corroborate basic assumptions of the Piagetian theory.  As noted by Lawson (1982) "If one holds the assumption that some general structure for formal reasoning exists, why then does performance on individual formal tasks not correlate more highly?" continued

5. 5 Literature review zFive formal reasoning modes consisting of controlling variables, proportional, probabilistic, correlational, and combinatorial reasoning. zFive formal reasoning modes have been also identified as essential abilities for success in secondary school science and mathematics courses (Bitner, 1991; DeCarcer, Gabel, & Staver, 1978; Lawson, 1982, 1985; Linn, 1982). continued

6. 6 Method zPopulation and Sample of the Study yFour 7th grade, three 8th grade, and four 9th grade classes. yTotal student population: 218 boys and 189 girls. zThe Test of Logical Thinking (TOLT) yThe Test of Logical Thinking (TOLT) (Tobin & Capie, 1981) is a 10-item paper and pencil test consisting of five modes of reasoning. yTOLT has two versions (A and B) and was developed to provide parallel group testing. yA Greek translation of version A of the test (Valanides, 1990) was used for the purpose of the study.

7. 7 Method zProcedure yThe translated test was administered to each of the selected classes during a science session. yExplained the test consisted of problems involving strategies which are useful in solving problems in a variety of areas and the purpose of the test was to provide information about how familiar students were with these strategies. yA 45 minute period was allowed for students to complete or revise the 10 items. yTest scores from 0-1, 2-3, and 4-10 were used as a basis for classifying subjects as concrete, transitional, and formal reasoners respectively (Tobin & Capie, 1980). continued

8. 8 Result zThe reliability of the translated test was.71 for the total group of 195 students. zTable 1 presents the frequencies and the percentages of students who had scores 0-10 on the test. zAs indicated in Table 1, only a small percentage of the total number of students (13.9%) have reached the formal operational stage (test scores 4-10).

9. 9 Result- Statistical analyses zClass and gender effects yStudent performance : 3 x 2 (Grade Level x Gender) ANOVA xno significant differences among students of the three grade levels {F (2, 189) = 3.042, p =.053} or between male and female students {F = (1, 189) = 0.058, p =.810}. xThe interaction between grade level and gender was also not significant {F(2,189) = 1.204, p =.302}.  A 2 x 3 (Gender x Grade Level) MANOVA was employed where student performance on each of the five reasoning modes were the five dependent variables. xThere were no significant differences between male and female students' performance on any of the five reasoning modes. x The main effect of class was significant only for student performance on the problems related to proportional reasoning, F(2, 289) = 3.41, p<.035 continued

10. 10 Result- Statistical analyses zEffects of school achievement and chronological age  Multiple regression analysis. y the dependent variable : student performance on the translated test y the independent variables : their achievement in science, mathematics, and Greek language, chronological age in months y Achievement in Greek language did not contribute significantly to regression. continued

11. 11 Result- Statistical analyses zStructure of student performance on the translated test yTwo separate factor analyses  In the First, the data to be analyzed consisted of performance on each of the five reasoning modes of the test. xIn the second analysis, student performance on each test problem was analyzed. yTable 3 displays the extracted factors and their loadings from the 10 problems of TOLT. continued

12. 12 Result- Statistical analyses zDifferences among performances on the test problems yTable 4 shows a matrix indicating where there were significant differences between each pair of these correlated proportions. yThe information presented in Table 4 indicates that the were significant differences not only between problems related to different modes of reasoning but also between problems related to the same reasoning mode. continued

13. 13 Discussion & Suggestions zA small gradual development of student formal reasoning abilities related to their grade. zThis does not necessarily mean that cognitive abilities improve with age because the improved performance may have resulted from other factors, such as familiarity with task content, manipulation of task instructions, or individual difference variables. z The curricula of both school subjects contain subject matter which presupposes or supports these modes of reasoning (proportional, combinatorial, probabilistic, etc.) and these "were taught," in some cases, repeatedly from the elementary school.

14. 14 Discussion & Suggestions zEach of the formal reasoning strategies has considerable importance to doing science and to rational thought in general (Lawson, 1985; Linn, 1982). zScience teaching should concern itself primarily with the development of students' reasoning abilities which are of utmost importance for a basic scientific literacy. zThe only valid way to assess reasoning is by questioning the response" (Inhelder & Piaget, 1958, p. 308). continued