1. March 4, 2009 Queen's University 1 Claude Boucher FUSION A promising source of energy

2. March 4, 2009 2Queen's University Plan Why Fusion ? Why Fusion ? Energy supply Energy supply Climate change Climate change Basic concepts Basic concepts The TOKAMAK (toroidalnaya kamera magnitnaya) The TOKAMAK (toroidalnaya kamera magnitnaya) Power balance of a thermonuclear furnace Power balance of a thermonuclear furnace Confinement time Confinement time Lawson criteria Lawson criteria Break-even vs Ignition Break-even vs Ignition ITER ITER Power plant Power plant

3. March 4, 2009 3Queen's University World primary energy consumption patterns From BP Statistical Review of World Energy 2008, www.bp.com 1 Mtoe = 0.042 EJ 462 EJ

4. March 4, 2009 4Queen's University Energy demand (forecast) 1 Gtoe = 42 EJ IEA World Energy Outlook www.worldenergyoutlook.org World energy demand expands by 45% between now and 2030 –an average rate of increase of 1.6% per year –with coal accounting for more than a third of the overall rise

5. March 4, 2009 5Queen's University Fossil fuel reserves-to-production (R/P) ratios From BP Statistical Review of World Energy 2008, www.bp.com

6. March 4, 2009 6Queen's University Estimated reserves of the principal non renewable resources EJ ( 278 TWhr) (10 18 joules) Duration(years) World annual energy consumption (2007) ~460 1,a 1 Resource Coal 22,900 2 50 b Oil 6,300 2 14 b Natural gas 5,400 2 12 b Uranium 235 (fission reactors) 2,000 2 5 Uranium 238 and thorium (breeder reactors) 120,000 2 300 Lithium (D-T fusion reactor) Land30,000 Oceans30,000,000 1 Consortium Fusion Expo Europe 2 Intergovernmental Panel on Climat Change (IPCC http://www.ipcc.ch/ ) a a forecast for 2050 are between 500 and 800 EJ b X 10 including « non-conventional » sources

7. March 4, 2009 7Queen's University Renewables (Left) U.S. electricity net generation by all fuels, and (Right) contribution of biomass, wind, geothermal, and solar technologies to the non-hydro renewables wedge. Proceedings of the IPCC SCOPING MEETING ON RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES, Lübeck, Germany, 20 – 25 January, 2008

8. March 4, 2009 8Queen's University Beauharnois hydro plant Power : 1 657 MW Power : 1 657 MW Type : Run-of-the-River Type : Run-of-the-River Number of turbines : 38 Number of turbines : 38 Height : 24 m Height : 24 m Commissioned : 1932- 1961 Commissioned : 1932- 1961 Water system: St-Laurence river Water system: St-Laurence river Reservoir : Lake Saint-François Reservoir : Lake Saint-François Reservoir area : 233 km 2 Reservoir area : 233 km 2

9. March 4, 2009 9Queen's University Solar panels 1 GWe from maximum solar illumination of 1kW/m 2 => 1km x 1km for 100% efficiency Efficiencies for PV ~10 to 20% with new technologies ~40%

10. March 4, 2009 10Queen's University All renewable supply Hypothesis 2100 Hypothesis 2100 Population = 9 billion Population = 9 billion High efficiency at 100,000 TWh High efficiency at 100,000 TWh Average of 11 TW ≈ actuel Average of 11 TW ≈ actuel Sources Sources Solar = 40% Solar = 40% Wind = 40% Wind = 40% Other renewable = 20% Other renewable = 20% Wind = 0,6 million km 2 Area larger than France Area Solar = 5,2 million de km 2 = 56% of Canada or US = 2/3 of Australia Source: G. Lafrance, book in preparation, Multimondes, fall 2006.

11. March 4, 2009 11Queen's University CO 2 emissions IEA World Energy Outlook www.worldenergyoutlook.org

12. Climate impact (1) March 4, 2009 12Queen's University Observed changes in (a) global average surface temperature; (b) global average sea level from tide gauge (blue) and satellite (red) data; and (c) Northern Hemisphere snow cover for March-April. All differences are relative to corresponding averages for the period 1961-1990. Smoothed curves represent decadal averaged values while circles show yearly values. The shaded areas are the uncertainty intervals estimated from a comprehensive analysis of known uncertainties (a and b) and from the time series (c). IPCC, Climate Change 2007: Synthesis Report (Valencia, Spain, 12-17 November 2007)

13. March 4, 2009 13Queen's University Climate impact (2) United Nations Environment Program SRES (Special Report on Emission Scenarios (IPCC))

14. March 4, 2009 14Queen's University Role of “renewables” Solar, wind, biomass, geothermal, … Solar, wind, biomass, geothermal, … “low density” applications “low density” applications ~ 20 % of world supply ~ 20 % of world supply Intensive land use Intensive land use Need for clean, abundant, “high density” source Need for clean, abundant, “high density” source ENTER FUSION

15. March 4, 2009 15Queen's University D-T reaction E = MC 2

16. March 4, 2009 16Queen's University Efficiency Chemical Chemical Fission Fission Fusion Fusion Reaction C+O 2 ->CO 2 n+U 235 n+U 235 => Ba 143 +Kr 91 +2n => Ba 143 +Kr 91 +2n D+T D+T => He+n => He+n Fuel Fuel Coal, Oil Uranium Deuterium and Tritium Reaction Temperature Reaction Temperature (K) (K)7001000 10 8 Energy produced Energy produced (J/kg) (J/kg) 3.3x10 7 2.1x10 12 3.4x10 14

17. March 4, 2009 17Queen's University Fuel equivalence 0.6 ton 150 tons 10,000,000 barrels 2,100,000 tons From « Fusion, energy for the future », National fusion program, 1991 Relative quantities of fuel required each year in different 1000 MW power plants Fusion Fission Oil Coal 1 pick-up truck 8 semi-trailors 7 super tankers, each of length equivalent to the CN tower 191 trains de 110 wagons each, for a total length of 400 km

18. March 4, 2009 18Queen's University Fusion reactions Large cross section 50% Small cross section Plus other possible reactions but with very small cross sections 50%

19. March 4, 2009 19Queen's University Fusion cross sections http://wwwppd.nrl.navy.mil/nrlformulary/index.html

20. March 4, 2009 20Queen's University Tritium breeding n + 6 Li = He +T + 4.8 MeV n + 7 Li = He +T – 2.5 MeV + n Tritium is produced by the interaction between fusion neutrons and lithium in a blanket surrounding the plasma Lithium is abundant in nature. Average concentration in the earth’s crust is about 0.004% (mass) The “consumables” are deuterium and lithium

21. Plasma March 4, 2009 21Queen's University  Mater is ionized: electrons (-) and ions (+)  Degree of ionization related to temperature: High temperature means no more neutrals  Particles will have “distribution function”  Charged particles gyrate around magnetic field lines

22. March 4, 2009 22Queen's University D-T reaction rate T in KeV m /sec 3

23. March 4, 2009 23Queen's University The tokamak The tokamak works like a transformer. a current ramp in the primary circuit generates a constant current (plasma) as the secondary. Plasma current Secondary circuit Toroidal field Poloidal field Helicoidal field Primary circuitToroidal coils

24. March 4, 2009 24Queen's University Tokamak geometry Axis: Toroidal Poloidal Radial Properties: Elongation Triangularity Aspect ratio  = 1/A = a/R q = aB  / RB    B  / B    = p / (B 2 / 2  0 )

25. March 4, 2009 25Queen's University Magnetic geometries Limiter Divertor

26. March 4, 2009 26Queen's University Tokamak - pulse scenario TOKAMAK pulse Charge transformer rapid fall for breakdown plasma initiated, current ramp up Ohmic heating + auxiliary heating Plateau, Current ramp down

27. March 4, 2009 27Queen's University Power balance P naT R /  212 Ions 3/2(nT i ) Electrons 3/2 (nT e ) P i,i P i,e P o,i P o,e PRPR PiPi P o = SOURCES (i)LOSSES (o) PP PnPn neutrons alphas PfPf

28. March 4, 2009 28Queen's University Confinement time (Break-even) PP P  io R  P P i f  n T vEaT E f     1 4 12/ Sources = Losses Break-even when the energy out in the fusion products balances the auxiliary power injected This determines break-even condition for the nt E product Q = P f / P i = 1

29. March 4, 2009 29Queen's University Confinement time (Ignition) P   P P oR  For ignition, the energy in the  particles is “recycled” and heats the fresh D and T being injected. The fusion reaction is then maintained with P i = 0 Q becomes infinite

30. March 4, 2009 30Queen's University Confinement time

31. March 4, 2009 31Queen's University Results From Contemporary Physics Education Project http://FusEdWeb.pppl.gov

32. March 4, 2009 32Queen's University JET: THE WORLD’S LARGEST TOKAMAK

33. March 4, 2009 33Queen's University Demonstration to date Source: Pamela-Solano, EFDA-JET Watkins, JET Continuous

34. March 4, 2009 34Queen's University ITER : History 1985 Geneva Summit 1986 start 1988-1990 CDA (Conception) US-EU(Canada)-J-FR 1990-1992 interim 1992-1998 EDA (Engineering) US-EU(Canada)-J-FR 1998-2001 EDA 2 (Detailed Engineering ) EU(Canada)-J-FR 2001-2002 CTA (technical, negotiations) EU-Canada-J-FR 2005 Site selection (Cadarache France) 2006-2016 Construction 2016-2036 Experiment 2036 Decommissioning Costs 8500 M$CAD Construction 8500 M$CAD Experiment <1000 M$CAD Decommissioning

35. March 4, 2009 35Queen's University ITER Main systems: Blanket, supports Divertor plates – up to 20 MW/m 2 (1/2-2/3 total plasma power) Pumping ducts and criopumps, pump injected D and T, He and impurities Gas throughput (200 Pa-m 3 /s) and pumping speed (~ 100 m 3 /s) dictate divertor behavior SC coils- 13 T Mechanical loads of 400 ton on internal components at disruptions Radial loads of 40,000 tons in each coils

36. March 4, 2009 36Queen's University ITER cross-section

37. March 4, 2009 37Queen's University ITER : Objectives Design Reach sustained burn in inductive mode, Q=10 Significant parameter window Sufficient duration for stationary plasma (~ hundreds of s) Target demonstration of continuous operation with Q at least 5 Not exclude the possibility of attaining controlled ignition (Q>>10) Technology: demonstration of the availability and the integration of reactor technologies tests of components, Tests of tritium blankets => 300-500s of full current in inductive operations => average neutron flux ≥ 0.5 MW/m 2 => average neutron fluence of ≥ 0.3 MWa/m 2

38. March 4, 2009 38Queen's University ITER : Program Operate at Q=10 with significant window in parameters for pulse length consistent with characteristic times. Operate at high Q for long pulses. Study continuous operation at Q=5 Reach controlled ignition in favorable conditions

39. March 4, 2009 39Queen's University ITER PHYSICS The ITER Physics program has multiple components and is developed through experiments on today’s tokamaks, and by theory and modeling, and has, as its prime objective, the development of a capability to predict tokamak performance. Key elements include: Understanding the transition between low (L) and high (H) confinement modes: prediction of power needed for L--> H transition Prediction of core fusion performance in H mode Control and mitigation of MHD instabilities Power and particle control Development of higher performance operation scenarios Identification and understanding of the new physics that will occur under ‘burning plasma’ conditions.

40. March 4, 2009 40Queen's University AUGJET ITER ITER confinement time http://www.tokamak.info/

41. March 4, 2009 41Queen's University BURNING PLASMA PHYSICS At Q > 1 have significant self heating due to fusion alphas. Isotropic energetic population of 3.5 MeV alphas. Plasma is now an exothermic medium and highly non-linear. Alpha particles may have strong resonant interaction with Alfven waves. T i ~ T e since V  >> V i, and m  >> m e the alphas particles slow predominantly on the electrons. Opportunity for unexpected discovery is very high! Reliable simulation is not possible. Need experiments in the new regime

42. March 4, 2009 42Queen's University ITER diagnostics installed in ports where possible Each diagnostic port-plug contains an integrated instrumentation package

43. March 4, 2009 43Queen's University ITER : Status Construction started Construction started Procurement well underway Procurement well underway www.iter.org/newsline/issues/current/ITERnewsline.htm As of 28 February 2009, the ITER Organization employs 356 staff members: 235 professional and 121 support. All seven Parties are represented amongst the professional staff: 141 originate from the EU, 10 from India, 19 from Japan, 15 from China, 16 from Korea, 17 from Russia, and 17 from the US.

44. March 4, 2009 44Queen's University Challenges Modeling Modeling Materials Materials Resistance to thermal loads and chocs Resistance to thermal loads and chocs Activation Activation T blanket T blanket Breeding ratio > 1 Breeding ratio > 1 Remote Manipulation Remote Manipulation Assembly Assembly Maintenance Maintenance

45. March 4, 2009 45Queen's University Thermonuclear power plant From « La fusion thermonucléaire, une chance pour l’humanité », J. Ongena, G. Van Oost et Ph. Mertens, 2001 Ideal scenario for replacement of liquid fossil fuel: Fusion to supply electricity to generate hydrogen for fuel cells.

46. March 4, 2009 46Queen's University CONCLUSION E=mc 2 Nuclear technology Fission FUSION

47. March 4, 2009 47Queen's University Thank you ! Merci ! boucher@emt.inrs.ca http://claude.emt.inrs.ca

48. Fusion research in Canada March 4, 2009 48Queen's University  Universities Alberta Saskatchewan Toronto Queen’s INRS