1. CHAPTER 2 The Complexities of Business Research

2. Key elements in the complexity of practical business research Issues are ‘messes’ not problems – the ‘problem’ may be merely a symptom. Finding solutions may be a creative rather than deductive process. There are multiple stakeholders and perspectives – what the problem is depends on who you ask. The researcher is often involved with the issue: researcher bias is therefore a real risk.

3. Problems or messes? A mess/wicked problem is a dynamic system of inter-related problems. ‘Solutions’ may have unintended, costly consequences which are difficult to reverse. To avoid this, you need to explore the complexity in some depth before doing anything. (Ackoff, 1971; Rittel and Webber, 1973)

4. Tools for approaching complexity Theory helps make things more manageable by limiting your focus – but you need to use a range of theory to ensure that your view is not too limited. Diagrams help you represent patterns in the complexity, pose useful questions about relationship, and help clarify your own and colleagues’ thinking.

5. Diagrams for representing complexity Key diagrams that can help with understanding complexity include: Rich pictures Relationship diagrams Multiple-cause diagrams Ishikawa or fishbone diagrams Various forms of cognitive mapping

6. Example of a rich picture Rich picture of Beth’s leaving rate situation

7. A relationship diagram

8. A multiple-cause diagram

9. An Ishikawa/fishbone diagram

10. A simple cognitive map A cognitive mapping of our thinking when deciding whether to write this book

11. Diagramming desiderata Diagrams should be clear and not too complex: the aim is to communicate, either to oneself or to others. They should follow any chosen convention (type). Diagrams usefully include: a descriptive title (describing the subject of the diagram and the diagram type) a key to any symbols used. Student Activities 1 and 2

12. Issues raised by researcher involvement If you have pre-existing ideas about the issue, and perhaps an interest in a particular outcome, this can influence (bias): how you define the issue what information you seek how you seek that information how you interpret it. Student Activity 3

13. Possible channels for bias

14. Turning challenges to opportunities Business issues arise within complex contexts – an opportunity to: learn about the wider organisation and its environment develop a wider network of contacts practise thinking about complexity practise using tools for dealing with complexity.

15. Turning challenges to opportunities What appears to be ‘the problem’ may be merely a symptom – an opportunity to: develop valuable diagnostic skills understand the real nature of a problem thus seeing a fruitful way of approaching it develop your understanding of important inter-relationships in organisations.

16. Turning challenges to opportunities There may be few objective ‘facts’ available, or even obtainable – an opportunity to: appreciate the importance of ‘soft’ evidence learn how to collect useful data on opinions and interpretations learn how to draw conclusions from these and assess their trustworthiness.

17. Turning challenges to opportunities There is never enough time to deal with all this complexity – an opportunity to: negotiate a feasible project develop time management skills develop project management skills.

18. Turning challenges to opportunities You, the researcher, may be part of the problem – an opportunity to: develop self-awareness appreciate the limitations and bias in your own perceptions address something of real importance to your job develop valued expertise gain favourable notice from key managers.