1. Social Psychology
“Someone once said, ‘All the world’s a stage, and we all must play a part.’”
Elvis

2. What is Social Psychology?
Social Psychology is the combination of the fields of psychology (study of behavior) and sociology (study of human society and social groups).
In social psychology, research focuses on how people interact within groups, how groups influence individual behavior, and how individuals influence the group’s behavior.

3. Social Interaction
Much of our interaction with other people involves reciprocal actions.
Often something is being exchanged, formally or informally, when we interact with another.
According to exchange theory (Homans, 1958), we continue in relationships based on what we get out of them.

4. Types of Exchange
Competition: The seeking of a goal only one can attain. Emphasis is on winning.
Conflict: Emphasis on destroying your opposition
Examples: Lawsuits
Custody battles
Wars
3. Cooperation: Two or more people working for the achievement of a common goal
4. Accommodation: Compromising

5. Groups within Society Group: has four components Two or more people
Interaction between people
Shared expectations between the people
Common identity
Aggregate: two or more people together, that lacks the rest of the elements of a group

6. Types of Groups Primary Groups: Small in size Long-lasting
Highly personal in both the intensity and amount of communication

7. Types of Groups Secondary Groups Shorter in time and intensity
Interest is in a small part of a person, not the whole person
Person can be easily replaced

8. In-Groups and Out-Groups
In-groups: the groups that you identify with
Out-groups: the groups you do not identify with
People tend to believe that the groups that they belong to are in some way superior to those that they do not.

9. Formation of in-groups
The Robber’s Cave Experiment (Sherif, 1954).
22 12-year-old boys were split into two separate groups (Rattlers/Eagles), and put through a three-step process:
Group identification/formation (within group)
Group competition (against other group)
Group cooperation (with other group)

10. Conclusions
Individuals develop strong bonds within their group, and can be highly antagonistic to outsiders.
Competing groups can ally with one another in the face of a shared threat/enemy.
Criticism: subjects thought they were at a summer camp, not an experiment. Also, narrow subject pool

11. Group functions
The relationships that you have with the people that you know form your social network
Leaders: those that influence other people’s opinions and attitudes
Instrumental leaders: those that focus on completing goals
Expressive leaders: Those that focus on the emotion and morale of the group

12. Group functions
Groups are formed to set goals, accomplish the goals, assign tasks, and make decisions.
Because groups are formed in pursuit of a common goal, the pressure to conform to the standards of the group can be strong.
“The nail that sticks out, will be hammered down.” – Chinese proverb
The willingness to remain in a group depends on a person’s investment in it.

13. Power of Conformity
Solomon Asch (1951, 1954, 1956): studied the ability of an individual to maintain their belief in the face of majority opposition.
In a series of studies, Asch consistently demonstrated that a significant number of subjects would capitulate to the majority even if the majority held an objectively incorrect position.
Subjects were more likely to hold on to their position if they had a confederate as an ally.
Note: Stanley Milgram was a student of Asch’s

14. Group Dynamics
The Bystander Effect (Darley and Latane, 1968): People are less likely to provide needed help when they are in groups than when they are alone.
Larger the group, the less likely help will be offered (diffusion of responsibility)
Results have been replicated in lab situations, field settings (e.g. malls)
People more likely to help when the bystanders are friends rather than strangers, and if the person is in clear distress.

15. A similar study was done at Princeton Theological Seminary (Darley and Batson, 1973)
Known as the Good Samaritan Study.
Seminarians were asked to a task, then sent over to another building to do another task (some were to give a talk on the Good Samaritan parable). Some told they had time, others told they needed to hurry, or were running late.
On the path to the next building, a person was slumped over for unknown reasons.
Findings: The biggest factor in whether the subject would stop was how big of a hurry the subject was in.
Less hurried = more likely to render aid

16. Groups at work
The larger the group, the less the individual produces (Karau and Williams, 1993). The difference to what an individual by him/herself produces and what they accomplish in a group setting is known as social loafing (Latane, 1979).
Another factor is lack of coordinated effort.
Social loafing can be countered by making individuals accountable for certain project tasks, smaller/cohesive groups, and cultural expectations.

17. Group Decision Making
Originally, studies by Stoner (1961) found that groups made riskier decisions than those made individually,
Later research showed evidence of polarization rather than consistent shift to risk. Polarization helps builds consensus in groups towards the dominant viewpoint (Van Swol, 2009).
Concern in decision process is groupthink, where an highly cohesive seeks conformity in thought without critical analysis (Janis, 1972).

18. Prejudice
Based on attitudes toward a group. The attitudes can be positive/negative
The attitudes can be based on stereotypes: beliefs about an entire group of people
These attitudes can transform into racism: a belief that one group is superior to another

19. Discrimination Based on behaviors
Discrimination can be legal (Jim Crow, Immigration laws, South African apartheid) or institutionalized (schools, redlining)

20. Attribution Theory
Attribution is the method in which a person/group attempts to explain why something occurs/does not occur.
Created by Fritz Heider, German Gestalt psychologist.
Theory creates meaning to actions.

21. How Attribution Theory Works
Internal v. External Factors: Is the reason for the event occurring/succeeding/failing due to factors that the person is in control of (Internal), or factors outside the individual’s control (external).
Stable v. Unstable: Is success/failure because of consistent (stable) or variable (unstable) factors.

22. Attribution Bias Concerns
Fundamental Attribution Error
Actor-Observer
Defensive Attribution
Individualism v. Collectivism (Cultural Bias)

23. Cognitive Dissonance Theory
Proposed by Leon Festinger
Describes situation(s) where thoughts do not coincide with action.