1. Chapter 1: Research Methods

2. Psychological Research
Scientific Observation: A systematic empirical investigation that is structured to answer questions about the world
Research Method: Systematic approach to answering scientific questions

3. Correlations
Existence of a consistent, systematic relationship between two events, measures, or variables

4. Scatterplots, showing patterns of correlations
Perfect positive
correlation (+1.00)
No relationship (0.00)
Perfect negative
correlation (-1.00)
Scatterplots, showing patterns of correlations

5. Scatterplot of Height and Temperament
Correlation 95 90 85 80 75 70 65 60 55 50 45 40 35 30 25
Temperament
scores
Height in inches
Scatterplot of Height and Temperament

6. Positive Correlation
Increases in one measure are matched by increases in the other measure

7. Negative Correlation
Increases in one measure are matched by decreases in the other measure

8. Coefficient of Correlation
Statistical index ranging from to that indicates direction and degree of correlation
Closer the statistic is to –1.00 or to +1.00, the stronger the relationship
Correlation of 0.00 demonstrates no relationship between the variables

9. Correlation and Causation
Correlation does not demonstrate causation: Just because two variables are related does NOT mean that one variable causes the other to occur

10. Naturalistic Observation
Observing a person or an animal in the environment in which the person or animal lives

11. Limitations
Observer Effect: Changes in a subject’s behavior caused by an awareness of being observed
Observer Bias: Occurs when observers see what they expect to see or record only selected details
Anthropomorphic Error: Attributing human thoughts, feelings, or motives to animals, especially as a way of explaining their behavior (e.g., “Anya my cat is acting like that because she’s feeling depressed today.”)

12. The Survey Method
Using public polling techniques to answer psychological questions
Representative Sample: Small group that accurately reflects a larger population
Population: Entire group of animals or people belonging to a particular category (e.g., all married women)
Courtesy Bias: Problem in research; a tendency to give “polite” or socially desirable answers

13. The Clinical Method
Case Study: In-depth focus of all aspects of a single subject
Natural Clinical Tests: Natural events, such as accidents, that provide psychological data

14. Experiments
A formal trial to confirm/disconfirm a hypothesis and to identify cause and effect relationships

15. The Scientific Method Six Basic Elements Observing Defining a problem
Proposing a hypothesis (an educated guess that can be tested)
Gathering evidence/testing the hypothesis
Publishing results
Building a theory

16. Hypothesis
Predictable outcome of an experiment or an educated guess about the relationship between variables
Operational Definition: States exact procedures used to represent a concept. Allows abstract ideas to be tested in real-world terms

17. Performing an Experiment
Directly vary a condition you might think affects behavior
Create two or more groups of subjects, alike in all ways except the condition you are varying
Record whether varying the condition has any effect on behavior

18. Variables
Any condition that can change and that might affect the outcome of an experiment

19. Independent Variable
Condition(s) altered by the experimenter; experimenter sets their size, amount, or value. These are suspected causes for behavioral differences

20. Dependent Variable
Measures the results of the experiment; Condition is affected by independent variable

21. Extraneous Variables
Conditions that a researcher wants to prevent from affecting the outcomes of the experiment (e.g., number of hours slept before the experiment)

22. Groups
Experimental Group: The group of subjects that gets the independent variable
Control Group: The group of subjects that does NOT get the independent variable
Random Assignment: Subject has an equal chance of being in either the experimental or control group

23. Placebo A fake pill (sugar) or injection (saline)
Placebo Effect: Changes in behavior that result from expectations that a drug or other treatment will have some effect; the belief that one has taken an active drug

24. Experiment Types
Single Blind: Only the subjects have no idea whether they are in the experimental or control group
Double Blind: The subjects AND the experimenters have no idea whether the subjects are in the control or experimental group
Best type of experiment if properly set up

25. Experimenter Effects
Changes in subjects’ behavior caused by the unintended influence of the experimenter’s actions
Self-Fulfilling Prophecy: A prediction that leads people to act in ways to make the prediction come true

26. Assessing Experiments
Reliability
the extent to which a test yields consistent results
assessed by consistency of scores on:
two halves of the test
alternate forms of the test
retesting
Validity
the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to

27. Statistical Reasoning
Mode
the most frequently occurring score in a distribution
Mean
the arithmetic average of a distribution
obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores
Median
the middle score in a distribution
half the scores are above it and half are below it

28. Statistical Reasoning
A Skewed Distribution 90
475
710 70
Mode Median Mean
One Family
Income per family in thousands of dollars

29. Assessing Intelligence
Standardization
defining meaningful scores by comparison with the performance of a pretested “standardization group”
Normal Curve
the symmetrical bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many physical and psychological attributes
most scores fall near the average, and fewer and fewer scores lie near the extremes

30. Normal Distribution

31. The Normal Curve

32. Statistical Reasoning
Range
the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution
Standard Deviation
a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean
Statistical Significance
a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance

33. Variance and Standard Deviation
SD= √variance
What does this mean?

37. Critical Thinking
Ability to analyze, evaluate, compare, critique, and synthesize information

38. Ethics in Psychology Informed consent Debrief
Protection of Participants
Deception
Confidentiality
Withdrawal from Experiment