1. Ionized gas in massive star forming regions Guido Garay Universidad de Chile Great Barriers in High-Mass Star Formation Townsville, September 15, 2010

2. Outline  HII regions Origin: molecular gas surrounding a high-mass star  Jets Origin: gas from putative star-disk system Review the characteristics of sources of ionized gas within massive star forming regions. Depending on the origin of the gas, we distinguish two type of sources: HII regions and Jets Aim

3.  HII regions  Physical parameters Source of ionization: UV photons emitted by embedded young luminous high-mass stars.  Based on their sizes, densities and emission measures, three classes of HII regions have been identified: Class Diameter Density EM Ref. (pc) (cm -3 ) (pc cm -6 ) Compact 0.1 10 3 >10 6 Mezger et al. (1967) Ultracompact 0.02 10 4 >10 7 Wood & Churchwell (1989) Hypercompact D 10 5 >10 8 Kurtz (2004) Hoare et al. (2007) Time discovery line  increase in angular resolution, observing frequency and sensitivity.

4.  Rather than discrete, there is a continuous distribution in the value of the parameters Garay & Lizano (1999) (see also Churchwell 2002) UCHII CHII HCHII UCHII CHII HCHII

5.  Rather than discrete, there is a continuous distribution in the value of the parameters … + more data from recent surveys:  DePree et al. (2004)  Sewilo et al. (2004)  Garay et al. (2006)  Murphy et al. (2010) Garay & Lizano (1999) (see also Churchwell 2002) HCHII  HCHII are uncommon

6.  There is a significant correlation between the parameters How do we explain these trends? Classical model: spherical bubble expanding in a uniform density medium (Spitzer 1978) n o : ambient density, c s : sound speed R s : initial Stromgren radius Lines indicate model relations for:  n o =10 6 cm -3 and N u =3x10 48 s -1 (upper)  n o =10 6 cm -3 and N u =3x10 45 s -1 (lower) Evolutionary sequence O7.5 B1 O7.5 B1

7. This simple  dynamical model   HII regions reach pressure equilibrium with ambient medium in a time scale of a few 10 4 yrs.  Age of compact HII regions could be much larger than this value.  Hypercompact are the youngest, smaller and denser versions of UCHII regions.  They should give us information about the process of high-mass star formation in the earliest evolutionary stages.  : single star, no dust (see Churchwell’s talk for dust considerations)  Massive stars are born in a high density ambient medium. Densities are similar to those of hot molecular cores  Hot cores are the precursors of UCHII regions.

8. 1.2mm dust continuum Hypercompact HII regions  Characteristics of their large scale (~1 pc) surroundings Dust continuum and molecular line observations in high density tracers  HCHII are found inside massive and dense cores. 1 pc Massive and dense cores  Very dark even at IR (IRDCs) 8 μm MSX Massive and dense core e.g., IRAS 16272-4837  Physical parameters: R ~ 0.4 pc M ~ 4x10 3 M  n(H 2 ) ~ 6x10 5 cm -3 Δv ~ 6 km s -1  Highly centrally condensed n  r -1.5

9. Optically  thick lines Optically  thin lines large scale infalling motions About thirty massive dense cores known with infalling motions Snell & Loren 1977, Welch et al. 1988, Garay et al. 2002, 2003, Wu & Evans 2003 Massive and dense core undergoing intense accretion phase  V inf ~1 km s -1 M inf ~ 1x10 -3 M  yr -1  Dynamical state:  Most in virial equilibrium  Few undergoing large scale inflow motions e.g., IRAS 16547-4247

10. Whether massive stars are formed at the center or migrate there, is still an open question. Images: 4.8 GHz emission (HCHII region) Contours: 1.2-mm emission (Massive core) IRAS 13291-6249 IRAS 15520-5234 IRAS 17016-4124  HCHII regions typically found at the center of massive cores 1 pc  Where are HCHII s located within massive and dense cores?

11.  Continuum spectra Due to their high emission measure HCHIIs are expected to have turnover frequencies, ν to, greater than 10 GHz. Range of power-law too wide to correspond to the transition from optically thick to optically thin regimes in a constant density region.  =1.0±0.1 Franco et al. (2000) Below ν to, HCHII regions frequently show power-law spectra over a wide frequency range, S ν  ν , with  typically ~1.

12. Possible explanations for the power-law:  HCHIIs possess density gradients. For a region in which the electron density goes as n  r -β  Flux density depends with ν as S ν  ν , with  =(4β-6.2) /(2β-1) Angular size depends with ν as θ ν  ν γ, with  = -2.1/(2β-1) e.g. HCHII G28.20-0.04: S ν  ν 1.1  n  r -2.8 (   ν -0.5 ) Is the expected size dependence with ν actually observed?  e.g., Avalos et al. (2005) Shell model: β = 2.8 R i = 0.0063 pc R o = 0.055 pc n i = 6x10 5 cm -3

13.  HCHIIs are hierarchically clumped structures. Ignace & Churchwell (2004) Ensemble of clumps with a distribution of optical depths produce:  Power-law spectral index covering a wide frequency range  No dependence of angular size with frequency

14. Caveat: Contribution from dust and free-free emission at frequencies of ~50 GHz can be of the same order, affecting the spectral index interpretation.  e.g., G75.78+0.34-H 2 O  n  r - 4 Franco et al. (2000) Cte. density HCHII region + hot dust disk  Kurtz (2010)

15.  Radio recombination lines HCHII regions often have broader line widths than UCHII regions. Origin of line broadening? Possible mechanisms:  Large-scale organized motions: rotation expansion infall  Pressure broadening  v  n 7.4 n e  v HCHII > 40 km s -1  v CHII ≈ 30 km s -1

16. Velocity gradient of 10 3 km s -1 pc -1.  Rotating torus with a velocity of 5 km s -1 at 0.005pc  High angular resolution observations indicate that ordered motions are present. H 92 e.g. G28.20-0.04 N H 53 Sewilo et al. (2004)  v 74 km s -1 Sewilo et al. (2008)

17. VLA observations in two epochs with Δt = 5 years,  Expansion motions with a velocity of about 35 km s -1.  G5.89-0.39 Acord et al. (1998) In most cases the bulk motions are not able to explain the observed linewidths.

18. Line  v n e (km s -1 ) (cm -3 ) H66  50.9 2.2e6 H53  32.5 4.7e6 H30  26.8 ---  Pressure broadening seems the most important contributor. In addition to the high densities, the RRL observations indicate the presence of density gradients ( at the higher frequency seeing deeper into the region ). Line  v n e (km s -1 ) (cm -3 ) H92  74.4 3e5 H76  57.6 9e5 H53  39.7 7e6 e.g. W51e2 For G28.20-0.04 N: H66  H53  H30 

19.  Models  Accretion flow (Keto 2002) Ingredients: Gravity + Ionization R i : radius of ionization equilibrium R g : gravitational radius (escape radius for ionized gas) Two characteristic radii If R i < R g  ionized gas can not expand gravitationally trapped HII region However, R g < R HCHII 

20.  Accretion disk (Keto 2007) Ingredients: Gravity + Ionization + Rotation of primordial cloud radius at which centrifugal and gravitational forces balance Third characteristic radius Actual situation depends on the relative values of the three R’s. e.g., if R i > R d, R g  radial wind driven by the thermal pressure of the ionized gas.

21. Density gradient of photoevaporated wind produces spectral index of ~ 0.8.  Photoevaporating disks Ingredients: Keplerian circumstellar disk + luminous YSO Hollenbach et al. (1994) Lizano et al (1996) R g = 0.0007 pc, R d = 0.0015 pc Lugo et al. (2004) MWC 349A

22. In the case of low-mass protostars, observations clearly show a Disk-Jet symbiosis. Disk: Protostar grows by accreting from disk. Jet: Carries away angular momentum and mechanical energy from disk into the surroundings, allowing accretion to proceed.  Accretion disk + jet Ingredients: Gravity + Ionization + Rotation + Magnetic field If this symbiosis also holds for high-mass protostars, then

23.  Jets Jets ≡ Highly collimated ionized flows that emanate from YSOs. Emission mechanism: thermal free-free emission. Detectable as weak radio sources. Source of ionization: UV photons from shocks produced by the impact of neutral collimated wind on the surrounding high density material. Jets are almost always found in the case of low-mass protostars. Thought to be the “base” of the large scale outflow phenomena like the bipolar outflows and HH systems.

24.  Are young massive stars associated with ionized jets? Garay & Lizano (1999) reported a handful of ionized thermal radio jets associated with massive YSOs, all of which have luminosities < 2x10 4 L . Source Lumin. S  References (L  ) (GHz) (mJy) Cepheus A HW2 1.0x10 4 8 10 0.6 Rodríguez et al. 94 IRAS 20126+4104 1.3x10 4 8 0.2 -- Hofner et al. 99 W75N(B) VLA1 1.5x10 4 8 4 0.7 Torrelles et al. 97 IRAS 18162-2048 1.7x10 4 5 5 0.2 Martí et al. 95

25. Observed flux density and size dependence with frequency  biconical thermal jet S  0.7   -0.6  Cepheus A HW2 jet Rodriguez et al. 1994  L = 700 AU M v = 6x10 -4 M  yr -1 km s -1

26. The number of detections has increased during the last decade and detections have been made towards progressively more luminous YSOs. Source Lumin. S  References (L  ) (GHz) (mJy) G35.2-0.7 N 1.6x10 4 9 0.4 >1.3 Gibb et al. 03 IRAS18089-1732 3.2x10 4 9 1.1 0.58 Zapata et al. 06 CRL2136-RS4 5.0x10 4 9 0.56 1.2 Menten & Tak 04 IRAS 16547-4247 6.2x10 4 9 6 0.5 Garay et al. 03 G345.494+1.468 7.0x10 4 9 9 0.85 Guzman et al. 10 G331.512-0.103 2.0x10 5 9 166 1.1 Bronfman et al. 08

27. Triple radio continuum source toward IRAS 16547-4247 ( L = 6  10 4 L  ) Garay et al (2003) 0.3 pc Triple radio continuum source toward IRAS 16562-3959 (L = 7  10 4 L  ) Guzman et al. (2010) 0.07 pc ATCA survey of radio continuum emission toward luminous massive proto-stellar objects  Jets are found associated with luminous YSOs. Thermal jet Lobes 4.8 GHz

28. Possible explanations:  Different formation mechanism?  Obscured by bright CHII region?  Short timescale for jet phase? Bipolar outflows in high mass protostar have dynamic ages of 10 5 yrs >longer than the K-H time of the jet/disk stage of 10 4 yrs.  jet may turn off and the large scale outflow will still persist as a fossil for a relatively long time. Molecular outflows (large scale) are relatively frequent towards high-mass YSOs, however jets are still rare…

29. Characteristics of jets associated with high-mass YSOs Velocity : 1000-3000 km s -1 Size : 0.01 pc Momentum rate: 10 -2 - 10 -1 M  km s -1 yr -1 Jet luminosity 10 3 times more luminous and energetic than low-mass jets ! Rodriguez et al. 2007 High-mass jets Low-mass jets  Jets associated with luminous YSOs are powerful Momentum rate

30. Summary  HII regions  HCHIIs are probes of the earliest phase of evolution of regions of ionized gas excited by young high-mass stars. However, still far from understanding them: density gradients : n  r -2.5 ?  S ν  ν 1.0 ensemble of clumps ? Disk rotation ?  Broad linewidths Outflows ? Pressure broadening ?  Morphologies ?  Are the high-mass stars exciting HCHII regions formed at the center of massive and dense cores or they migrate there?

31.  Ionized jets  Jets are found associated with high-mass YSOs (up to luminosities of  2x10 5 L  ).  They are 10 3 times more energetic and luminous than low-mass jets.  They are rare. Open questions: Disk wind?  Which is the nature of the driving mechanism? X-wind?  Which are their lifetimes?  Do jets rotate?

32. To address these questions we need to probe HCHIIs and ionized jets with high spatial resolutions (< 2 AU) and high sensitivities. ALMA

34.  Variability of radio emission Lobes show a clear decrease in radio flux density of 20-30% over 12 years. Franco-Hernandez & Rodriguez (2004) e.g., NGC 7538 IRS1 Possible explanations:  Ionizing photon flux from star is decreasing.  Inyection of fresh gas in core steals ionizing photons for the lobes

35.  Spectral energy distribution  At ν 1cm) : free-free emission from ionized gas Ultracompact HII regions SEDs of UCHII regions Kurtz et al. 1994 Modified Planck function ν -0.1 ν2ν2 1 1 1  At ν > 300 GHz ( < 1 mm): thermal dust emission from warm cocoon

36. Shell 28% Cometary 14% Core-halo 16% Bipolar 8%  Morphologies + spherical, irregular, and unresolved morphologies (Churchwell 2002) UCHII regions exhibit a variety of morphologies Morphologies depend on the characteristics of the exciting star and of the environment, as well as on their interaction.

38.  Observational consideration Kelvin-Helmholtz time Massive stars spend short time in the pre-main sequence: Rate of massive star formation in the Galaxy:  Massive protostars are very rare How many massive protostars we expect to see in our Galaxy? 