1. SPEAKING PURSUASIVELY 15 © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved.

2. ] [ What’s To Come » The Meaning and Art of Persuasion » Creating a Persuasive Message » Honing Your Persuasive Speaking Skills

3. ] [ The Meaning and Art of Persuasion » Persuasion is an attempt to motivate others to adopt or maintain a specific manner of thinking or doing Beliefs Opinions Actions

4. ] [ Choosing a Method of Informing » Three forms of “rhetorical proof” or ways to support a persuasive argument Ethos: Appeals to a speaker’s respectability, trustworthiness, and moral character Pathos: Appeals to listeners’ emotions Logos: Appeals to listeners’ sense of reason »Inductive reasoning »Deductive reasoning Greek Philosopher Aristotle (384-322 BCE )

5. ] [ Choosing a Method of Informing » Three forms of “rhetorical proof” or ways to support a persuasive argument Ethos: Appeals to a speaker’s respectability, trustworthiness, and moral character Ethics Pathos: Appeals to listeners’ emotions Logos: Appeals to listeners’ sense of reason »Inductive reasoning »Deductive reasoning Greek Philosopher Aristotle (384-322 BCE )

6. ] [ Choosing a Method of Informing » Three forms of “rhetorical proof” or ways to support a persuasive argument Ethos: Appeals to a speaker’s respectability, trustworthiness, and moral character Ethics Pathos: Appeals to listeners’ emotions Pathology Logos: Appeals to listeners’ sense of reason »Inductive reasoning »Deductive reasoning Greek Philosopher Aristotle (384-322 BCE )

7. ] [ Choosing a Method of Informing » Three forms of “rhetorical proof” or ways to support a persuasive argument Ethos: Appeals to a speaker’s respectability, trustworthiness, and moral character Ethics Pathos: Appeals to listeners’ emotions Pathology Logos: Appeals to listeners’ sense of reason »Inductive reasoning Logical »Deductive reasoning Greek Philosopher Aristotle (384-322 BCE )

8. ] [ Creating a Persuasive Message » We use various types of persuasive propositions Questions of fact Questions of value Questions of policy

9. ] [ Creating a Persuasive Message » We can influence beliefs with propositions of fact, which deal with the truth or falsity of an assertion, and allegation, or a claim »Barack Obama was born in Hawaii »Flying is the safest mode of transportation »Solar power is not capable of meeting the energy demand in the United States

10. ] [ Question of Fact Specific Purpose: To persuade my audience that an earthquake of 9.0 or above on the Richter scale will hit California in the next ten years.

11. ] [ Question of Fact I.California is long overdue for a major earthquake. II.Many geological signs indicate that a major earthquake may happen soon. III.Experts agree that an earthquake of 9.0 or above could strike California any day.

12. ] [ Creating a Persuasive Message » We can influence opinions with propositions of value, which deal with the worth, the importance, or the subjective rightness of an idea or action »Fathers are just as important as mothers »Animal cloning is immoral »Our country is right to do anything it can to protect its citizens

13. ] [ Question of Value Specific Purpose: To persuade my audience that capital punishment is morally and legally wrong.

14. ] [ Question of Value I.Capital punishment violates the constitutional ban on “cruel and unusual punishment.” II.Capital punishment runs too high a risk of killing an innocent person. III.The moral dilemma of taking someone’s life, no matter the crime.

15. ] [ Creating a Persuasive Message » We influence actions with propositions of policy, which deal with whether a course of action should or should not be taken »The federal government should ban the use of human stem cells in medical research »Hate crimes against ethnic and religious minorities should be capital offenses »Everyone should eat only locally grown, organic foods whenever possible

16. ] [ Proposition of Policy: Passive Agreement » Convinces audience policy is desirable. » Avoids encouraging action to support policy.

17. ] [ Proposition of Policy: Passive Agreement » “To persuade my audience that a balanced-budget amendment should be added to the U.S. Constitution.”

18. ] [ Proposition of Policy: Immediate Action » Convinces audience to act in support of a policy

19. ] [ Proposition of Policy: Immediate Action » “To persuade my audience to vote in the next student election.”

20. ] [ Proposition of Policy: Immediate Action

21. ] [ Creating a Persuasive Message » We organize persuasive messages in four ways 1. Problem-Solving Pattern »Establish that a problem exists and is serious »Establish that your proposed solution is possible, practical, and effective

22. ] [ Problem Solving Pattern Main Point I:Documents existence of problem Main Point II:Presents solution(s) to problem

23. ] [ Problem Solving Pattern I.The spread of phony pharmaceuticals is a serious health problem. II.Solving the problem of phony pharmaceuticals requires action by the federal government.

24. ] [ Problem Solving Pattern

25. ] [ Creating a Persuasive Message » We organize persuasive messages in various ways 2. Refutational Approach »Present the main arguments against your position »Immediately refute those arguments »State your own position and argue for it

26. ] [ Refutational Approach

27. ] [

28. ] [ Creating a Persuasive Message » We organize persuasive messages in various ways 3. Comparative Advantage Method »Describe the problem »Identify various alternative viewpoints »Explain why each alternative viewpoint is deficient »Propose your own solution to the problem

29. ] [ Comparative Advantage Method 1.Evaluating teachers on the basis of test scores is unfair because that rewards teachers who “teach to the test.” 2.Having principals evaluate teachers is unfair because principals can play favorites. 3.Evaluating teachers based on students feedback is unfair because only popular teachers will receive good evaluations.

30. ] [ Comparative Advantage Method Therefore... The only fair way to evaluate teachers is by using expert evaluators from other school districts because they won’t know the content of student exams, they won’t know the teachers so they can’t play favorites, and they won’t be swayed by teacher popularity.

31. ] [ Creating a Persuasive Message » We organize persuasive messages in various ways 4. Monroe’s motivated sequence »Generate attention »Show the need for change »Describe how your solution will satisfy that need »Ask your audience to try and visualize how their situation will improve with your solution »Then tell your audience what action you want them to take

32. ] [ Motivated Sequence

33. ] [ Avoid Logical Fallacies! Ad hominem fallacy Slippery slope Either/or fallacy False-cause fallacy Bandwagon appeal Hasty generalization Red herring fallacy Straw man fallacy Begging the question Appeal to false authority

34. ] [ Ad Hominem » Latin for “to the man” » When you attack an individual on a personal level rather than dealing with real issue at hand

35. ] [ Ad Hominem » “The town supervisor has a number of very interesting economic proposals, but let’s not forget that he comes from a very wealthy family, and never held a real job in his life.”

36. ] [ Slippery Slope » Assuming that the first step will lead to later steps that can’t be prevented.

37. ] [ Slippery Slope » “Now that the TSA is allowed to use full-body scanners and invasive pat- downs before letting us through airport security, it’s only a matter of time before they strip-search every man, woman, and child who wants to fly on a plane.”

38. ] [ Either-Or » Forcing a choice between two alternatives when more than two really exist.

39. ] [ Either-Or » “To eliminate the deficit, the government must either raise taxes or eliminate services for the poor.”

40. ] [ False Cause » Mistakenly assuming that because one event follows another, then the first event must have caused the second event.

41. ] [ False Cause » “When a team from the NFC wins the Super Bowl, economic growth during the next year is stronger than when a team from the AFC wins the Super Bowl. Therefore, if we want economic growth, we should root for a team from the NFC to win this year’s Super Bowl.”

42. ] [ Bandwagon » Because something is popular, then it must be good or correct.

43. ] [ Bandwagon » “The governor must be correct in his opposition to the death penalty; after all, public opinion polls show that 60 percent of the people support him.”

44. ] [ Hasty Generalization » Jumping to conclusion based on insufficient evidence.

45. ] [ Hasty Generalization » “Throughout American history, military leaders have always made excellent Presidents. Look at the examples of George Washington, Andrew Jackson, and Dwight Eisenhower.”

46. ] [ Red Herring » Irrelevant issue that diverts the listener's attention from the actual subject.

47. ] [ Red Herring » “How dare my opponents accuse me of political corruption at a time when we are working to reduce the $10 million budget deficit that I inherited from the previous administration.”

48. ] [ Straw Man Fallacy » When the speaker refutes a claim that was never made.

49. ] [ » After the Governor proposes to reduce the drinking age to 19, a legislator says: “Our Governor thinks kids should be able to sit in bars drinking martinis! I doubt most parents in this state want to see children getting hammered with hard liquor after school.” Straw Man Fallacy

50. ] [ Begging the Question » Supporting an argument with claims whose truth is taken for granted but never verified.

51. ] [ Begging the Question “Banning the use of cell phones while driving would save thousands of lives every year.”

52. ] [ Appeal to False Authority » Uses as evidence the testimony or endorsement of someone who is not an expert on the given topic (but who is typically a celebrity).

53. ] [ Appeal to False Authority

54. ] [ Reasoning from Principle (Not in your textbook) » When the speaker moves from a general principle to a specific conclusion » While this isn’t a true “logical fallacy,” it is a path that should be taken with care

55. ] [ Reasoning from Principle Major Premise:All people are mortal. Minor Premise:Oprah Winfrey is a person. Conclusion:Therefore, Oprah Winfrey is mortal.

56. ] [ Reasoning from Principle Seems simple enough... » Use a major premise your audience will accept » Provide evidence for a minor premise to reach your conclusion

57. ] [ Reasoning from Principle But, does “Reasoning from Principle” always work? Not really. Just ask Mia.

58. ] [ Reasoning from Principle Major Premise:People say you look like me. Minor Premise: Conclusion:

59. ] [ Reasoning from Principle Major Premise:People say you look like me. Minor Premise:People also say I look like grandpa. Conclusion:

60. ] [ Reasoning from Principle Major Premise:People say you look like me. Minor Premise:And people say I look like grandpa. Conclusion:Therefore, you must look like grandpa! =

61. ] [ Reasoning from Principle Major Premise:People say you look like me. Minor Premise:And people say I look like grandpa. Conclusion:Therefore, you must look like grandpa! = No Daddy!! No Daddy!!

62. ] [ Examples of Fallacies

63. ] [ Honing Your Persuasive Speaking Skills » Adapt to your audience Identify your audience’s disposition »Receptive audience »Neutral audience »Hostile audience Neutralize hostility

64. ] [ Neutralize Hostility

65. ] [ Honing Your Persuasive Speaking Skills » Build rapport with your listeners Interact with listeners before your speech Maintain eye contact while you speak Open with a story Use humor when appropriate

66. ] [ Use Humor When Appropriate http://www.sjcny.edu/videos/cuomo/

67. ] [ Honing Your Persuasive Speaking Skills » Establish your credibility Demonstrate your competence Accent your character Communicate with charisma

68. ] [ Credibility Matters! » Study the topic thoroughly » Learn all sides of the issue » Don’t prey on weakness » Avoid subtle dishonesty: Quotes out of context Misrepresenting sources Incomplete details

69. ] [ For Review » What does it mean to persuade? » In what ways can we craft a persuasive message? » Through what strategies can we hone our persuasive-speaking skills?