3.  An epic is a long narrative poem that recounts, in formal language, the exploits of a larger-than-life hero.  They were usually performed orally with musical accompaniment.  The epic hero is usually a man of high social status and is often important in the history of his people.  Epic plots usually involve:  Supernatural events  Long time periods  Life and death struggles

4.   The epic hero is a mythical character who is strong, courageous, morally upright, and driven by the desire for glory.   He faces enormous obstacles in these pursuits, usually some force or character that represents evil.   Even if the hero loses his life, he is still victorious in his pursuit of glory. Characteristics of an Epic Hero: Is significant and glorified Is on a quest Has superior strength, intelligence, and courage Is ethical Risks death for the good of society Performs brave deeds Is a strong and responsible leader Reflects the ideas and values of his society

5.  43 A.D. – Romans conquer Celts in southern England  Bring technology and Christianity  400-600 A.D. – Angles, Saxons, and Jutes invade (3 most powerful Germanic tribes)  410 A.D. – Rome renounces control of Britain  By 500 A.D., Romans abandoned Britain completely to defend failing Roman Empire  8 th – 9 th centuries: Danes (Vikings*) invade and conquer most of England

6.  793 A.D. - Danes attack Lindisfarne, a holy settlement in which monks are enslaved / murdered and treasure is stolen  This event sends shockwaves through the Christian courts of Europe and causes Danes to be viewed as lawless, bloodthirsty, heathen savages for centuries.  It isn’t until the 1890s when the Danes are given credit for their artistry, seamanship, and technological skills.  878 A.D. – King Alfred the Great turns the tide against the invading Danes at the Battle of Edington  Alfred was a pious Christian and tried to spread Christianity throughout Britain, even to the “heathen” Danes  Over the next century, Alfred’s son and grandson win back the rest of the country from the Danes, but the peace is short-lived…

7.  1066 A.D. – King Edward III dies without an heir, but leaves the crown to Harold, head of a noble family  William the Conqueror, Edward’s cousin (from Normandy), claims the English throne  The Battle of Hastings:  Most famous battle in British history  Lasts only one day  Harold killed with an arrow to the eye  William defeats Harold’s forces  William the Conqueror is crowned king on Christmas Day, 1066.  What’s the significance?  The Anglo-Saxon period ends (lasted from 449 – 1066), and the Norman period begins  French becomes the language of the King’s court  Gradually blends with Anglo-Saxon to become modern English  Remembered for the Domesday Book (1086), the oldest surviving public record, which was a survey of England

8.  Even though it is the oldest English epic, it is neither set in England, nor are its characters English!  It is the oldest surviving piece of Anglo- Saxon literature, an epic that reflects the values of its warrior culture.  Beowulf was composed around 700 A.D., but it was not written down until the 11 th century, probably by an English monk.  For 300 years, it was passed down orally from one scop (pronounced shop) to another  This accounts for both Norse and Christian influences and references.  It is written in Old English, and only one complete manuscript remains. It is housed in the British Museum.

9.  Loyalty and Honor  Comitatus: brotherhood of men who owed allegiance to a chieftain and expected his benevolence in return  Avenging one’s kinsmen (wergild)  Keeping one’s word  Religion – closely related to the old Norse religion  Woden – chief god (Anglo-Saxon kings claim to be descendants)  Thunor – god of thunder and sky  Tiw – god of single combat, victory, and heroic glory  Frige – goddess of the earth  Valhalla – the great mead hall where fallen warriors go to await Ragnorok  Animal sacrifice  Cremation  Generosity – gifts symbolize bonds (arm rings)  Brotherly love – not romantic love  Heroism  Physical strength  Skill and resourcefulness in battle  Courage  Dying with a sword in one’s hand  Public reputation, not private conscience  Warriors strive for glory, fame, and wealth

10.  Alliterative verse:  Same initial consonants  Line halved by caesura  Usually four stresses per line  Kenning: poetic renaming  Assonance: repeated vowel sounds in unrhymed, stressed syllables

11.   Alliteration is the repetition of consonant sounds at the beginning of words that are close together in a poem.   “Hrothgar’s men lived happy in his hall.”   “miserable, mighty men tormented”

12. An obvious pause in a line of poetry. In Old English poetry, it usually comes near the middle of a line, with two stressed syllables before and two after. Out from the marsh, from the foot of misty Hills and bogs, bearing God’s hatred, Grendel came, hoping to kill Anyone he could trap on this trip to high Herot. (Notice all the alliteration, too?! )

13. Kennings are special kinds of metaphors that use compound words, prepositional phrases, or possessives to name a person, place, thing, or event indirectly. Some examples from Beowulf: “gold-shining hall” = Herot “gold-shining hall” = Herot “guardian of crime” = Grendel “guardian of crime” = Grendel “strong-hearted wakeful sleeper” = Beowulf “strong-hearted wakeful sleeper” = Beowulf “cave-guard” and “sky-borne foe” = dragon “cave-guard” and “sky-borne foe” = dragon

14.   Repeated vowel sounds in unrhymed, stressed syllables   Some examples from Beowulf: A powerful monster, living down In the darkness, growled in pain, impatient As day after day the music rang Loud in that hall, the harp’s rejoicing Call and the poet’s clear songs, sung Of the ancient beginnings of us all …

15. What is the relationship between literature and place? How does literature shape or reflect society? What is the relationship of the writer to tradition?