1. Is Any Firm Ever Really a Monopoly?
Monopoly A firm that is the only seller of a good or service that does not have a close substitute.

2. Where Do Monopolies Come From?
To have a monopoly, barriers to entering the market must be so high that no other firms can enter.
Barriers to entry may be high enough to keep out competing firms for four main reasons:
1 Government blocks the entry of more than one firm into a market.
2 One firm has control of a key resource necessary to produce a good.
3 There are important network externalities in supplying the good or service.
4 Economies of scale are so large that one firm has a natural monopoly.

3. Where Do Monopolies Come From?
Entry Blocked by Government Action
Patents and Copyrights
Patent The exclusive right to a product for a period of 20 years from the date the product is invented.
Copyright A government-granted exclusive right to produce and sell a creation.
Public Franchises
Public franchise A designation by the government that a firm is the only legal provider of a good or service.

4. Where Do Monopolies Come From?
Natural Monopoly
Natural monopoly A situation in which economies of scale are so large that one firm can supply the entire market at a lower average total cost than can two or more firms.

5. Where Do Monopolies Come From?
Natural Monopoly
Average Total Cost Curve for a Natural Monopoly

6. Control of a Key Resource
Most resources, including raw materials such as oil or iron ore, are widely available from a variety of suppliers, but before World War II, the Aluminum Company of America (Alcoa) and the International Nickel Company of Canada were two monopolies based on control of a key resource.
Network Externalities
Network externalities A situation in which the usefulness of a product increases with the number of consumers who use it.
From a firm’s point of view, network externalities can set off a virtuous cycle:
If a firm can attract enough customers initially, it can attract additional customers because the value of its product has been increased by more people using it, which attracts even more customers, and so on.

7. Making the Connection The End of the Christmas Plant Monopoly
For many years, the Paul Ecke Ranch in Encinitas, California had a monopoly on poinsettias, whose striking red and green colors that blossom in the winter make them ideal for Christmas decorating.
After discovering a new technique for growing the wildflower that was kept secret for decades, the Ecke family was able to maintain a monopoly on its commercial production without acquiring a patent,
until a university researcher discovered the technique and published it in an academic journal.
As a result, many new firms quickly entered the industry and the price of poinsettias plummeted.

8. Making the Connection Are Diamond Profits Forever?
The De Beers Diamond Monopoly
The most famous monopoly based on control of a raw material is the De Beers diamond mining and marketing company of South Africa,
which became one of the most profitable and longest- lived monopolies in history by carefully controlling the supply of diamonds to keep prices high.
As competition in the diamond business gradually increased over the years, De Beers abandoned its strategy of attempting to control the worldwide supply of diamonds, concentrating instead on differentiating its diamonds by marking each one with a microscopic brand—a “Forevermark.”
Other firms have followed suit by branding their diamonds.
Whether consumers will pay attention to brands on diamonds remains to be seen,
although through 2011, the branding strategy had helped De Beers to maintain a 35 to 40 percent share of the diamond market.

9. How Does a Monopoly Choose Price and Output?
Marginal Revenue Once Again
When a firm cuts the price of a product, one good thing happens, and one bad thing happens:
• The good thing. It sells more units of the product.
• The bad thing. It receives less revenue from each unit than it would have received at the higher price.

10. How Does a Monopoly Choose Price and Output?
Marginal Revenue Once Again
Calculating a Monopoly’s Revenue

11. How Does a Monopoly Choose Price and Output?
Profit Maximization for a Monopolist: MR = MC
Profit-Maximizing Price and Output for a Monopoly

12. Does Monopoly Reduce Economic Efficiency?
Comparing Monopoly and Perfect Competition
What Happens If a Perfectly Competitive Industry Becomes a Monopoly?

13. Does Monopoly Reduce Economic Efficiency?
Measuring the Efficiency Losses from Monopoly
The Inefficiency of Monopoly

14. Does Monopoly Reduce Economic Efficiency?
Measuring the Efficiency Losses from Monopoly
We can summarize the effects of monopoly as follows:
1 Monopoly causes a reduction in consumer surplus.
2 Monopoly causes an increase in producer surplus.
3 Monopoly causes a deadweight loss, which represents a reduction in economic efficiency.

15. Does Monopoly Reduce Economic Efficiency?
How Large Are the Efficiency Losses Due to Monopoly?
Market power The ability of a firm to charge a price greater than marginal cost.
Market Power and Technological Change
The introduction of new products requires firms to spend funds on research and development.
Because firms with market power are more likely to earn economic profits than are perfectly competitive firms, they are also more likely to carry out research and development and introduce new products.

16. Government Policy toward Monopoly
Collusion An agreement among firms to charge the same price or otherwise not to compete.
Antitrust Laws and Antitrust Enforcement
Antitrust laws Laws aimed at eliminating collusion and promoting competition among firms.

17. Government Policy toward Monopoly
Antitrust Laws and Antitrust Enforcement
Important U.S. Antitrust Laws
LAW
DATE
PURPOSE
Sherman Act
1890
Prohibited “restraint of trade,” including price fixing and collusion. Also outlawed monopolization.
Clayton Act
1914
Prohibited firms from buying stock in competitors and from having directors serve on the boards of competing firms.
Federal Trade Commission Act
Established the Federal Trade Commission (FTC) to help administer antitrust laws.
Robinson-Patman Act
1936
Prohibited charging buyers different prices if the result would reduce competition.
Cellar-Kefauver Act
1950
Toughened restrictions on mergers by prohibiting any mergers that would reduce competition.

18. Government Policy toward Monopoly
Mergers: The Trade-off between Market Power and Efficiency
Horizontal merger A merger between firms in the same industry.
Vertical merger A merger between firms at different stages of production of a good.

19. Government Policy toward Monopoly
Mergers: The Trade-off between Market Power and Efficiency
A Merger That Makes Consumers Better Off

20. Government Policy toward Monopoly
The Department of Justice and Federal Trade Commission Merger Guidelines
The guidelines have three main parts:
1 Market definition
2 Measure of concentration
3 Merger standards
Market Definition
A market consists of all firms making products that consumers view as close substitutes.

21. Government Policy toward Monopoly
The Department of Justice and Federal Trade Commission Merger Guidelines
Measure of Concentration
• 1 firm, with 100% market share (a monopoly): HHI = 1002 = 10,000
• 2 firms, each with a 50% market share: HHI = = 5,000
• 4 firms, with market shares of 30%, 30%, 20%, and 20%: HHI = = 2,600
• 10 firms, each with market shares of 10%: HHI = 10 (102) = 1,000

22. Government Policy toward Monopoly
The Department of Justice and Federal Trade Commission Merger Guidelines
Merger Standards
• Post-merger HHI below 1,000. These markets are not concentrated, so mergers in them are not challenged.
• Post-merger HHI between 1,000 and 1,800. These markets are moderately concentrated. Mergers that raise the HHI by less than 100 probably will not be challenged. Mergers that raise the HHI by more than 100 may be challenged.
• Post-merger HHI above 1,800. These markets are highly concentrated. Mergers that increase the HHI by less than 50 points will not be challenged. Mergers that increase the HHI by 50 to 100 points may be challenged. Mergers that increase the HHI by more than 100 points will be challenged.

23. Making the Connection
Should AT&T Have Been Allowed to Merge with T-Mobile?
The two main ways that a merger between two large firms can increase the combined firm’s profits are by (1) increasing market power so as to increase prices, which the federal government may see as violating the antitrust laws, and (2) lowering costs through increased efficiency, which firms typically emphasize.
AT&T argued that the combined company, which would become the largest wireless firm in the United States, could operate at lower cost than could the companies operating separately.
AT&T was proposing a horizontal merger that would sharply increase both concentration in the wireless industry and HHI points, but because the Antitrust Division didn’t believe that cost savings would offset the increased market power the newly merged firm would acquire, it filed a lawsuit to stop the merger.
AT&T’s attempt to merge with T-Mobile was shaping up as a classic antitrust case of reduced price competition more than offsetting increased efficiency.

24. Government Policy toward Monopoly
Regulating Natural Monopolies
Regulating a Natural Monopoly