1. Cell Division Chapter 11 AP

2. Division in Prokaryotes Binary Fission – Lack a nucleus – Circular DNA attached to plasma membrane – At replication site 22 proteins begin replication – When complete, daughter DNAs attached to PM next to each other – Plasma membrane grows between DNA until divided in two

3. Eukaryotic Chromosomes Discovered during mitosis Varied number between organisms – Primitive plant (fern) has 500 pairs, but advanced flowering plant has 1 pair Humans have 23 almost identical pairs – Loss of one chromosome = monosomy (usually death) – Gain of one chromosome = trisomy (sometimes death or developmental problems)

4. Structure of Chromosomes Chromatin – Complex of DNA and protein Chromosome – Composed of chromatin – Long unbroken strands of DNA – Can contain 140 million nucleotides – Super-super-super-coiled

5. Supercoiling “String-of-beads” – Every 200 nucleotides is wrapped around 8 histone proteins = nucleosome DNA attracted to histones by opposite charge (“+” histones to “-” phosphates) – Heterochromatin Highly condensed chromatin that does not uncoil, thus is never expressed – Euchromatin Condensed only during cell division, but is uncoiled when not dividing so genes can be expressed

6. Karyotypes Particular array of chromosomes for an individual Chromosomes differ from each other within the same cell – Size – Staining properties – Location of centromere – Length of arms on either side of centromere To view karyotype – Induce cell division, stop cell division, lyse cells, stain chromosomes, take picture, cut out, then order largest to smallest

7. Phases of Cell Cycle Phases – Interphase G 1 phase: primary growth – G 0 phase: resting phase S phase: synthesis of entire genome G 2 phase: prep for cell division – (M) Mitosis Prophase Metaphase Anaphase Telophase – (C) Cytokinesis—division of cytoplasm

8. Duration of Cell Cycle Cell cycle lengths – Most embryos = 20 minutes – Fruit fly embryo = 8 minutes – Dividing mammalian cell = 24 hours – Human liver = 1 year – M phase of cell cycle only about an hour for regular cells – Some cells enter G 0 phase for days to years before entering cellular division (some stay there indefinitely)

9. Interphase G 1 – Major cell growth – Occurs directly after cell division, so cell must get bigger and mature before dividing again – Protein synthesis S phase – Each chromosome is replicated producing two sister chromatids attached by a centromere G 2 – Second growth – Mitochondria and other organelles are replicated – Chromosomes are condensed (supercoiled) – Centrioles replicate (animal cells)

10. Mitosis Prophase – Formation of mitotic apparatus Begins as chromosomes become visible w/ light microscope Condensation continues – Assembling spindle apparatus Begins at end of G2 phase and continues into prophase Centrioles begin to move apart forming an axis of microtubules called spindle fibers – Bridge of spindle fibers called spindle apparatus – Also in plant cells, but no centrioles Nuclear envelope disappears – Microtubules from opposite poles begin to connect to kinetochores of sister chromatids

11. Mitosis (cont.) Metaphase – Chromosomes line up in center of cell at metaphase plate – Positioned by microtubules attached at kinetochores Anaphase – All centromeres divide at same time – Separates sister chromatids – Pulled apart to different poles – Poles themselves move apart – Centromeres move toward the poles

12. Mitosis (cont.) Telophase – Spindle apparatus disassembles – Nuclear envelope reassembles around each set of sister chromatids (chromosomes, now) – Chromosomes begin to uncoil – rRNA genes expressed and nucleolus will soon be reformed

13. Cytokinesis Mitosis over Nuclei at opposite ends of cell Actual cell division not over until two new daughter cells separate = cytokinesis Involves cleavage of cell into two equal halves In animal cells – Belt of actin filaments constricts and pinches creating a cleavage furrow. Constriction continues until cells separate

14. Cytokinesis In plant cells – Cell wall too rigid to be pinched – Assemble membrane components from within – Called cell plate – Cellulose then placed between two new membranes making cell wall In fungi and protists – When mitosis is complete, nucleus divides into daughter nuclei

15. Cell Cycle Control Need sufficient time for events to occur – Internal clock – End of last phase starts next phase – “go/no-go” switches Control system – Growth is assessed at G1 checkpoint Key decision whether cell should divide or not – If favorable, cell goes into S phase – If not, cell will continue to grow

16. Cell Cycle Control (cont.) – DNA replication success assessed at G2 checkpoint Problems with DNA synthesis are fixed If passes inspection cell will enter M phase – Mitosis assessed at M checkpoint At metaphase checkpoint initiates exit from mitosis and cytokinesis and beginning of G1

17. Mechanisms of Cell Control Cyclin control system – Cyclin-dependent protein kinases (Cdks) Phosphorylate particular amino acids in proteins important to cellular division This initiates the cell cycle past the checkpoint – G2 checkpoint is better understood G2 cyclin gradually increases Cyclin binds to Cdk forming MPF (mitosis promoting factor) As more MPF accumulates there is a positive feedback that phosphorylates more MPF The MPF threshold is reached and triggers mitosis and the end of G2

18. Mechanisms of Cell Control – MPF also activates proteins that destroy the very cyclin that started the whole process – As cyclin becomes less available to make MPF it initiates the end of mitosis G1 checkpoint – Less understood than G2 – Thought to be regulated like G2 – Cell size triggers DNA replication – Determinant for S phase is ratio of amount of cytoplasm to genome size – This triggers production of more cyclins, then triggering S and G2 phases

19. Cell Cycle in Eukaryotes To maintain organization, only certain cells can divide at certain times Cells use regulatory signals called growth factors Growth factors fit cell surface receptor – Some very specific, others not so specific – Many cells need many different types of growth factors in order to overcome the controls that inhibit cell division If cells do not get growth factors, they stop after G1 and go into G0 phase (non-growing stage)

20. Cancer Unrestrained, uncontrolled cell growth Read about the p53 gene Proto-oncogenes (must be turned on to cause cancer) – Genes that stimulate cell division – If damaged they lead to oncogenes (cancer) – myc, fos, jun myc expression prevents cell division even in presence of growth factors Tumor-suppressor genes (must be turned off or mutated to cause cancer—recessive: both copies must be bad) – Suppress cell division by preventing cyclins from binding to Cdk – If mutated, can lead to uncontrolled cell division, but is recessive – Read about retinoblastoma gene