2. EVOLUTION OF POPULATIONS

3. What is evolution? The change in the genetic make-up of a species over timeThe change in the genetic make-up of a species over time

4. POPULATION GENETICS Study of evolution from a genetic point of view Study of evolution from a genetic point of view What is a population? What is a population? A collection of individuals of the same species that routinely interbreed ( living in the same location)A collection of individuals of the same species that routinely interbreed ( living in the same location) A species is a naturally breeding group of organisms that produce fertile offspring. A species is a naturally breeding group of organisms that produce fertile offspring. A population is the smallest in which evolution occurs A population is the smallest in which evolution occurs

5. Individuals within a population vary. Biologist study the variation. A bell curve represents the distribution of variants in a population.

6. What causes variation? Recombination in the diploid Crossing-overCrossing-over Independent assortment of allelesIndependent assortment of alleles Mutation Random fusion of gametes fertilization fertilization

7. Gene pool – total genetic information available in a population. Allele frequency tends to remain the same from generation to generation unless acted upon by an outside force.

8. Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium The allele frequency in a population can be calculated using the Hardy-Weinberg equation. The allele frequency in a population can be calculated using the Hardy-Weinberg equation. This equation states that all of the allele combination must add to ONE (1) This equation states that all of the allele combination must add to ONE (1) Dominate alleles + recessive alleles = 1 Dominate alleles + recessive alleles = 1 p + q = 1 p + q = 1 The frequency of the heterozygote may also be calcuated The frequency of the heterozygote may also be calcuated

9. What is Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium? Assumes NO evolution occurs. Assumes NO evolution occurs. All 5 conditions must be meet. All 5 conditions must be meet. Can never happen! Can never happen! It is a model or a yardstick to measure how much a population or species has evolved. It is a model or a yardstick to measure how much a population or species has evolved.

10. Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium Conditions No net mutation No net mutation No migration No migration Large population size Large population size Mating is random Mating is random Natural selection does not occur Natural selection does not occur

11. Disruption of Genetic Equilibrium Mutation Mutation Migration Migration Migration Genetic Drift Genetic Drift Genetic Drift Genetic Drift Non- Random Mating Non- Random Mating Non- Random Mating Non- Random Mating Natural Selection Natural Selection Natural Selection Natural Selection

12. MIGRATION Immigration Immigration Emigration Emigration Gene flow – moving genes from population to another Gene flow – moving genes from population to another

13. Genetic Drift Change in the allele frequency as a result of random events or chance Change in the allele frequency as a result of random events or chance Usually occurs in small populationsUsually occurs in small populations After a natural disastersAfter a natural disasters Flood Flood Forest fire Forest fire In the smallest population allele frequency reaches 0 after the 45 th generation = no variation

14. Non-random Mating Random Mating – mating without regard to genetic make-up Random Mating – mating without regard to genetic make-up Sometimes mating selection is often influenced by geographic proximity Sometimes mating selection is often influenced by geographic proximity Many animals do not mate randomly Many animals do not mate randomly

15. NATURAL SELECTION 1 All species have genetic variation. 2. The environment presents many challenges 3 Organisms tend to produce more offspring than the environment can support - competition ( struggle for survival) 4 Some individuals are better suited to cope with the challenges ( survival of fittest) 5 Characteristics best suited to environment tend to increase in a population over time

16. (5) Over long periods of time, and given a steady input of new variation into a population, these processes lead to the emergence of new species Essence of Darwin’s ideas (1)Variation exists in natural populations (2) Many more offspring are born each season than can possibly survive to maturity (3) As a result, there is a struggle for existence - competition - competition (4) Characteristics beneficial in the struggle for existence will tend to become more common in the population, changing the average characteristics of the population - adaptations - adaptations

17. LaMarckian vs. Darwinian view LaMarck LaMarck in reaching higher vegetation giraffes stretch their necks & transmits the acquired longer neck to offspringin reaching higher vegetation giraffes stretch their necks & transmits the acquired longer neck to offspring Darwin Darwin giraffes born with longer necks survive better & leave more offspring who inherit their long necksgiraffes born with longer necks survive better & leave more offspring who inherit their long necks

18. STABALIZING SELECTION Individuals with the average form are of a trait have the highest fitness Individuals with the average form are of a trait have the highest fitness Example: 1. Birth weight in offspring 2. Seed size

19. DIRECTIONAL SELECTION The frequency of one allele tends to move in one direction ( more of one of the extremes forms of the trait The frequency of one allele tends to move in one direction ( more of one of the extremes forms of the trait Example – tongue length in anteaters

20. Disruptive Selection Individuals with either extreme have an advantage over individuals with the average form of the trait. Example: Limpet shell coloration

21. Sexual Selection

22. SPECIES FORMATION Begins Begins with geographic isolation Results Results in reproductive isolation Speciation Speciation occurs

23. MECHANISM FOR REPRODUCTIVE ISOLATION Geographical isolation Geographical isolation Ecological isolation Ecological isolation Temporal isolation Temporal isolation Mechanical isolation Mechanical isolation Reproductive failure Reproductive failure

24. How does evolution/speciation occur? GRADUALISM gradual process that goes on all the time PUNCTUATED EQUILIBRIUM periods of rapid change are separated by periods of little or no change

25. MICROEVOLUTION LEADS TO MACROEVOLUTION