1. Overview of Network Protocols, Services & Layering OSI Reference Model TCP/IP Architecture Error Detection and Correction

2. What is Computer Networks? A collection of autonomous computers interconnected by a single technology Interconnected via: Copper wire Fiber optics Microwaves Infrared Communication satellites, etc.

3. Protocols, Services & Layering

4. Layers, Services & Protocols The overall communications process between two or more machines connected across one or more networks is very complex Layering partitions related communications functions into groups that are manageable Each layer provides a service to the layer above Each layer operates according to a protocol

5. Protocols A protocol is a set of rules that governs how two or more communicating entities in a layer are to interact Messages that can be sent and received Actions that are to be taken when a certain event occurs, e.g. sending or receiving messages, expiry of timers The purpose of a protocol is to provide a service to the layer above

6. Layers A set of related communication functions that can be managed and grouped together Application Layer: communications functions that are used by application programs HTTP, DNS, SMTP (email) Transport Layer: end-to-end communications between two processes in two machines TCP, User Datagram Protocol (UDP) Network Layer: node-to-node communications between two machines Internet Protocol (IP)

7. Example: TCP TCP is a transport layer protocol Provides reliable byte stream service between two processes in two computers across the Internet Sequence numbers keep track of the bytes that have been transmitted and received Error detection and retransmission used to recover from transmission errors and losses TCP is connection-oriented: the sender and receiver must first establish an association and set initial sequence numbers before data is transferred Connection ID is specified uniquely by (send port #, send IP address, receive port #, receiver IP address)

8. Example: UDP UDP is a transport layer protocol Provides best-effort datagram service between two processes in two computers across the Internet Port numbers distinguish various processes in the same machine UDP is connectionless Datagram is sent immediately Quick, simple, but not reliable

9. Summary Layers: related communications functions Application Layer: HTTP, DNS Transport Layer: TCP, UDP Network Layer: IP Services: a protocol provides a communications service to the layer above TCP provides connection-oriented reliable byte transfer service UDP provides best-effort datagram service Each layer builds on services of lower layers HTTP builds on top of TCP DNS builds on top of UDP TCP and UDP build on top of IP

10. Chapter 2 Applications and Layered Architectures OSI Reference Model

11. Why Layering? Layering simplifies design, implementation, and testing by partitioning overall communications process into parts Protocol in each layer can be designed separately from those in other layers Protocol makes “calls” for services from layer below Layering provides flexibility for modifying and evolving protocols and services without having to change layers below Monolithic non-layered architectures are costly, inflexible, and soon obsolete

12. Open Systems Interconnection Network architecture: Definition of all the layers Design of protocols for every layer By the 1970s every computer vendor had developed its own proprietary layered network architecture Problem: computers from different vendors could not be networked together Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) was an international effort by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) to enable multivendor computer interconnection

13. OSI Reference Model Describes a seven-layer abstract reference model for a network architecture Purpose of the reference model was to provide a framework for the development of protocols OSI also provided a unified view of layers, protocols, and services which is still in use in the development of new protocols Detailed standards were developed for each layer, but most of these are not in use TCP/IP protocols preempted deployment of OSI protocols

14. 7-Layer OSI Reference Model Application Layer Presentation Layer Session Layer Transport Layer Network Layer Data Link Layer Physical Layer Application Layer Presentation Layer Session Layer Transport Layer Network Layer Data Link Layer Physical Layer Network Layer Application Data Link Layer Physical Layer Network Layer Data Link Layer Physical Layer Communicating End Systems One or More Network Nodes End-to-End Protocols

15. Physical Layer Transfers bits across link Definition & specification of the physical aspects of a communications link Mechanical: cable, plugs, pins... Electrical/optical: modulation, signal strength, voltage levels, bit times, … functional/procedural: how to activate, maintain, and deactivate physical links… Ethernet, DSL, cable modem, telephone modems… Twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable, optical fiber, radio, infrared, …

16. Data Link Layer Transfers frames across direct connections Groups bits into frames Detection of bit errors; Retransmission of frames Activation, maintenance, & deactivation of data link connections Medium access control for local area networks Flow control Data Link Layer Physical Layer Data Link Layer Physical Layer frames bits

17. Network Layer Transfers packets across multiple links and/or multiple networks Addressing must scale to large networks Nodes jointly execute routing algorithm to determine paths across the network Forwarding transfers packet across a node Congestion control to deal with traffic surges Connection setup, maintenance, and teardown when connection-based

18. Internetworking Internetworking is part of network layer and provides transfer of packets across multiple possibly dissimilar networks Gateways (routers) direct packets across networks G = gateway H = host Net 1 Net 5 Net 3 Net 2 H Net 3 G H H H G G G G G Net 1Net 2Net 4Net 5 Ethernet LAN ATM Switch ATM Switch ATM Switch ATM Switch ATM Network

19. Transport Layer Transfers data end-to-end from process in a machine to process in another machine Reliable stream transfer or quick-and-simple single- block transfer Multiplexing Message segmentation and reassembly Connection setup, maintenance, and release Transport Layer Network Layer Transport Layer Network Layer Network Layer Network Layer Communication Network

20. Application & Upper Layers Application Layer: Provides services that are frequently required by applications: DNS, web access, file transfer, email… Presentation Layer: machine- independent representation of data… Session Layer: dialog management, recovery from errors, … Application Layer Presentation Layer Session Layer Transport Layer Application Layer Transport Layer Application Incorporated into Application Layer

21. Headers & Trailers Each protocol uses a header that carries addresses, sequence numbers, flag bits, length indicators, etc… CRC check bits may be appended for error detection Application Layer Transport Layer Network Layer Data Link Layer Physical Layer Application Layer Transport Layer Network Layer Data Link Layer Physical Layer Application APP DATA AHAPP DATA TH AHAPP DATA NHTH AHAPP DATA DHNHTH AHAPP DATA CRC bits

22. Summary: 7-Layer OSI Reference Model Application Layer Presentation Layer Session Layer Transport Layer Network Layer Data Link Layer Physical Layer Application Layer Presentation Layer Session Layer Transport Layer Network Layer Data Link Layer Physical Layer Network Layer Application Data Link Layer Physical Layer Network Layer Data Link Layer Physical Layer One or More Network Nodes End-to-End Protocols

23. Chapter 2 Applications and Layered Architectures TCP/IP Architecture How the Layers Work Together

24. TCP/IP Protocol Suite (ICMP, ARP) Diverse network technologies Reliable stream service User datagram service Distributed applications HTTP SMTP RTP TCP UDP IP Network interface 1 Network interface 3 Network interface 2 DNS Best-effort connectionless packet transfer

25. Encapsulation TCP Header contains source & destination port numbers IP Header contains source and destination IP addresses; transport protocol type Ethernet Header contains source & destination MAC addresses; network protocol type HTTP Request TCP header HTTP Request IP header TCP header HTTP Request Ethernet header IP header TCP header HTTP Request FCS

26. Recap: TCP/IP Protocol Suite (ICMP, ARP) Diverse network technologies Transport Layer HTTP SMTP RTP TCP UDP IP Network interface 1 Network interface 3 Network interface 2 DNS Internet Layer Application Layer Network Interface Layer

27. Summary Encapsulation is key to layering IP provides for transfer of packets across diverse networks TCP and UDP provide universal communications services across the Internet Distributed applications that use TCP and UDP can operate over the entire Internet Internet names, IP addresses, port numbers, sockets, connections, physical addresses

28. Error Detection and Correction

29. Error Control Digital transmission systems introduce errors Applications require certain reliability level Data applications require error-free transfer Voice & video applications tolerate some errors Error control used when transmission system does not meet application requirement Error control ensures a data stream is transmitted to a certain level of accuracy despite errors Two basic approaches: Error detection & retransmission (ARQ: Automatic Retransmission Request) Forward error correction (FEC)

30. Key Idea All transmitted data blocks (“codewords”) satisfy a pattern If received block doesn’t satisfy pattern, it is in error Redundancy: Only a subset of all possible blocks can be codewords Blindspot: when channel transforms a codeword into another codeword Channel Encoder User information Pattern checking All inputs to channel satisfy pattern or condition Channel output Deliver user information or set error alarm

31. Single Parity Check Append an overall parity check to k information bits Info Bits: b 1, b 2, b 3, …, b k Check Bit: b k+1 = b 1 + b 2 + b 3 + …+ b k modulo 2 Codeword: (b 1, b 2, b 3, …, b k,, b k+1 ) All codewords have even # of 1s Receiver checks to see if # of 1s is even All error patterns that change an odd # of bits are detectable All even-numbered patterns are undetectable Parity bit used in ASCII code

32. Example of Single Parity Code Information (7 bits): (0, 1, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0) Parity Bit: b 8 = 0 + 1 +0 + 1 +1 + 0 = 1 Codeword (8 bits): (0, 1, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 1) If single error in bit 3 : (0, 1, 1, 1, 1, 0, 0, 1) # of 1’s =5, odd Error detected If errors in bits 3 and 5: (0, 1, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 1) # of 1’s =4, even Error not detected

33. Two-Dimensional Parity Check 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 Bottom row consists of check bit for each column Last column consists of check bits for each row More parity bits to improve coverage Arrange information as columns Add single parity bit to each column Add a final “parity” column Used in early error control systems

34. 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 Arrows indicate failed check bits Two errors One error Three errors Four errors (undetectable) Error-detecting capability 1, 2, or 3 errors can always be detected; Not all patterns >4 errors can be detected

35. Other Error Detection Codes Many applications require very low error rate Need codes that detect the vast majority of errors Single parity check codes do not detect enough errors Two-dimensional codes require too many check bits The following error detecting codes used in practice: CRC Polynomial Codes

36. Polynomial Codes Polynomials instead of vectors for codewords Polynomial arithmetic instead of check sums Implemented using shift-register circuits Also called cyclic redundancy check (CRC) codes Most data communications standards use polynomial codes for error detection Polynomial codes also basis for powerful error- correction methods

37. Addition : Multiplication : Binary Polynomial Arithmetic Binary vectors map to polynomials (i k-1, i k-2,…, i 2, i 1, i 0 )  i k-1 x k-1 + i k-2 x k-2 + … + i 2 x 2 + i 1 x + i 0 (x 7 + x 6 + 1) + (x 6 + x 5 ) = x 7 + x 6 + x 6 + x 5 + 1 = x 7 +(1+1)x 6 + x 5 + 1 = x 7 +x 5 + 1 since 1+1=0 mod2 (x + 1) (x 2 + x + 1) = x(x 2 + x + 1) + 1(x 2 + x + 1) = x 3 + x 2 + x + (x 2 + x + 1) = x 3 + 1

38. Binary Polynomial Division Division with Decimal Numbers 32 35 ) 1222 3 105 17 2 4 140 divisor quotient remainder dividend 1222 = 34 x 35 + 32 dividend = quotient x divisor +remainder Polynomial Division x 3 + x + 1 ) x 6 + x 5 x 6 + x 4 + x 3 x 5 + x 4 + x 3 x 5 + x 3 + x 2 x 4 + x 2 x 4 + x 2 + x x = q(x) quotient = r(x) remainder divisor dividend + x + x 2 x3x3 Note: Degree of r(x) is less than degree of divisor

39. Polynomial Coding Code has binary generator polynomial of degree n–k k information bits define polynomial of degree k – 1 Find remainder polynomial of at most degree n – k – 1 g(x) ) x n-k i(x) q(x) r(x) x n-k i(x) = q(x)g(x) + r(x) Define the codeword polynomial of degree n – 1 b(x) = x n-k i(x) + r(x) n bits k bits n-k bits g(x) = x n-k + g n-k-1 x n-k-1 + … + g 2 x 2 + g 1 x + 1 i(x) = i k-1 x k-1 + i k-2 x k-2 + … + i 2 x 2 + i 1 x + i 0

40. Transmitted codeword: b(x) = x 6 + x 5 + x b = (1,1,0,0,0,1,0) 1011 ) 1100000 1110 1011 1110 1011 1010 1011 010 x 3 + x + 1 ) x 6 + x 5 x 3 + x 2 + x x 6 + x 4 + x 3 x 5 + x 4 + x 3 x 5 + x 3 + x 2 x 4 + x 2 x 4 + x 2 + x x Polynomial example: k = 4, n–k = 3 Generator polynomial: g(x)= x 3 + x + 1 Information: (1,1,0,0) i(x) = x 3 + x 2 Encoding: x 3 i(x) = x 6 + x 5

41. The Pattern in Polynomial Coding All codewords satisfy the following pattern: All codewords are a multiple of g(x)! Receiver should divide received n-tuple by g(x) and check if remainder is zero If remainder is nonzero, then received n-tuple is not a codeword b(x) = x n-k i(x) + r(x) = q(x)g(x) + r(x) + r(x) = q(x)g(x)

42. Standard Generator Polynomials CRC-8: CRC-16: CCITT-16: CCITT-32: CRC = cyclic redundancy check HDLC, XMODEM, V.41 IEEE 802, DoD, V.42 Bisync ATM = x 8 + x 2 + x + 1 = x 16 + x 15 + x 2 + 1 = (x + 1)(x 15 + x + 1) = x 16 + x 12 + x 5 + 1 = x 32 + x 26 + x 23 + x 22 + x 16 + x 12 + x 11 + x 10 + x 8 + x 7 + x 5 + x 4 + x 2 + x + 1