1. Carbohydrates (CHO) – Simple Sugars
Carbohydrates (CHO) – Simple Sugars
Monosaccharide - ose
single sugar units (CH2O)n
# of C (tri-, pent-, hex-)
aldose / ketone (C=O)
spatial arrangem (chiral C)
Uses
- energy sources, building blocks, raw material
Disaccharide
Two monomers (glycosidic bond)
Condensation / dehydration rxn
- anomeric OH group of 1 monomer & any other –OH on the other sugar.
- specific pattern
Glycosidic bond
Condensatn rxn
Maltose = Glucose--1,4-Glucose
Lactose = Galactose--1,4-Glucose
Sucrose = Glucose--1,2-Fructose
Anomeric Carbon & OH
Easily oxidized
 or 
Aldohexose Eg: glucose
Ketohexose Eg: fructose

2. Glycosidic Bond Formation
specific pattern
primary structural difference
Linear polymers = all residues are involved in two glycosidic linkages except at each end of the chain
Branched polymers can be formed that consist of residues with 3 glycosidic bonds.
Common Disaccharides
Count the C
Identify  or 
Name the bond

3. macromo polymers (100 – 1000s mono-S).
- large & insoluble
- compact shapes,
- hydrolysed easily to form sugars
POLYSACCHARIDES
macromo polymers (100 – 1000s mono-S).
Branched / linear
Storage
Support
Animals - Glycogen
glycogen granules
liver & skeletal muscle
 glucose
extensively branched.
Every 8-12 glucose units.
> compact than amylopectin.
- red-violet colour with iodine-potassium iodide solution.
Plants - Starch
granules in plastids
- carbon & energy sources
 glucose
Amylose & Amylopectin
Plants - cellulose
- cellulose  glucose
- Diff 3D shapes, f(x)
- Alternate inverted mol
- long, unbranched str chain.
- // chains -OH project outwards - H-bonds ./. neighbourg chains.
- cross-linking
- form microfibrils, & macrofibrils.
Benedict’s test and Fehling’s test.
- High tensile strength
Stability
withstand forces fr all directions
- Fibrils - different orientations in different layers
- fully permeable
- food source
Reducing sugar = free anomeric carbon (all mono-S & some di-S).

4. Glycogen phosphorylase
Storage Poly-S
- major source of energy for cells: - cellular respiration, = ATP, CO2 & H2O production
- large size makes it relatively insoluble in water (no osmotic or chemical influence in the cell)
- fold into compact shapes, (store many glucose molecules) within a small volume in the cell.
- easily converted to sugars by hydrolysis when required, thus releasing energy required.
Amylose
linear (100 – 1000s -glu w -(1,4) glycosidic bonds)
compact - helically coil w 6 glu / turn
form micelles w helical poly-S chain
blue-black colour with I2 –KI)
Amylopectin
> complex (-glucose residues, but with 2 different linkages)
twice as many -glucose residues as amylose
(1-4) glycosidic bonds giving it the linear structure.
(1-6) glycosidic bonds = branched. (12-30 residues)
Branching - simultaneous breakdown by enzymes
- highly compact
red-violet colour with I2-KI
Starch phosphorylase
Amylose - -amylase and -amylase
Amylopectin - - & -amylase & (16)-glucosidase
Animals - Salivary & pancreatic -amylase. (16)-glucosidase
(14) bonds - resistant to acid / amylases cellulases (-glucosidases)
Debranching enzymes,
amylo--(16)-glucosidase,
Glycogen phosphorylase

5. Relating Structure of Starch to its Storage Function Structure
Significance
Large molecule
Insoluble; thus it is ideal storage material since it does not affect the osmotic potential within cells and living organisms.
Anomeric carbon involved in glycosidic bond formation leaving few free groups
This makes starch an unreactive and stable compound, again, ideal as storage substance.
Composed of several hundreds to thousands of glucose monomers
The large number of glucose molecules act as a large store of carbon (building block) and energy (respiratory substrate).
Glucose units linked by (14) glycosidic bonds
Starch may be easily hydrolysed by enzymes present in plants and most organisms.
(14) glycosidic bonds result in helical coil so that structure is more compact and ideal for storage.
Amylose molecules are helical in shape
The resulting compact shape is ideal for storage.
Amylopectin molecules are highly branched
The compact shape allows for easy storage.
Many enzymes can hydrolyse it easily at the same time for use by organisms.
Relating Structure of Glycogen to its Storage Function
Structure
Significance
Large molecule
Insoluble; thus it is ideal storage material since it does not affect the osmotic potential within cells and living organisms.
Anomeric carbon involved in glycosidic bond formation leaving few free groups
This makes glycogen an unreactive and stable compound, again, ideal as storage substance.
Composed of several hundreds to thousands of glucose monomers
The large number of glucose molecules act as a large store of carbon (building block) and energy (respiratory substrate).
Glucose units linked by (14) glycosidic bonds
(14) glycosidic bonds can be hydrolysed by glycogen phosphorylase to release glucose-1-phosphate.
(14) glycosidic bonds result in helical coil so that structure is more compact and ideal for storage.
Glycogen is highly branched
The compact shape allows for easy storage.
Many enzymes can hydrolyse it easily at the same time for use by organisms.

6. Relating Structure of Cellulose to its Structural Function
Significance
Large molecule
Insoluble; thus it is ideal storage material since it does not affect the osmotic potential within cells and living organisms.
Composed of several hundreds to thousands of glucose monomers
The large number of glucose molecules act as a large store of carbon and energy for organisms that can feed on it.
Glucose units linked by (14) glycosidic bonds
 (14) glycosidic bonds result in long, straight chains.
Long and unbranched
Acts as scaffold  important for supportive function.
- OH groups project from cellulose chains
Allows H-bonds to form between chains
 forms extensive cross-linkages in microfibrils
 results in high tensile strength
 important for structural strength
Chains associated in groups to form microfibrils and macrofibrils
This results in high tensile strength that translates further into mechanical strength.

7. FYI : L or D sugars
For sugars with more than one chiral center, the D or L designation refers to the asymmetric carbon farthest from the aldehyde or keto group.
Most naturally occurring sugars are D isomers.
D & L sugars are mirror images of one another. They have the same name. For example, D-glucose and L-glucose are shown at right.