1. CHAPTER FIVE CONTINGENCY MODELS: USING RESOURCES EFFECTIVELY

2. Learning Objectives 1. Explain the importance of the effective use of resources to leadership. 2. Distinguish between a task-motivated and a relationship-motivated leader and identify the elements of situational control used in Fiedler’s Contingency Model of Leadership. 3. Present the Contingency Model’s predictions and explain how to use it to improve leadership effectiveness.

3. 4. Present the four decision styles used in the Normative Decision Model of Leadership. 5. Understand the role of decision quality and follower acceptance in the choice of leadership styles and how to use the Normative Decision Model to improve leadership effectiveness. 6. Discuss the Cognitive Resource Theory and its implications for leaders. Learning Objectives (con’t.)

4. Elements Of Fiedler’s Contingency Model  The leader’s style: Task or relationship motivation measured by the LPC scale Task or relationship motivation measured by the LPC scale  Situational control: Leader-member relations Leader-member relations Task structure Task structure Position power Position power

5. Characteristics Of Task And Relationship-motivated Leaders Task-Motivated(Low-LPC) Draws self-esteem from task completion Draws self-esteem from task completion Focuses on task firstFocuses on task first Can be harsh with failing followersCan be harsh with failing followers Considers competence to be key employee traitConsiders competence to be key employee trait Enjoys detailsEnjoys detailsRelationship-Motivated(High-LPC) Draws self-esteem from interpersonal relationshipsDraws self-esteem from interpersonal relationships Focuses on people firstFocuses on people first Likes to please othersLikes to please others Considers loyalty to be key employee traitConsiders loyalty to be key employee trait Gets bored with detailsGets bored with details

6. Fiedler’s Model GROUPPERFORMANCEHigh Low SITUATIONAL CONTROL Leader-Member Leader-Member Relations Relations Task Structure Task Structure Position Power Position PowerHIGHMODERATELOW GOODBAD HIGHLOW HIGHHIGH HIGH HIGHHIGHLOWLOWLOWLOW LOW Low-LPC High-LPC

7. Contingency Model’s Implications For Managers  Leaders must understand their own style and their leadership situation  Leaders should focus on changing the situation to match their style  A good relationship with followers is key to  the leader’s ability to lead  Leaders can seek training to compensate for task ambiguity

8. Elements Of The Normative Decision Model  The leader’s decision-making style: Autocratic Autocratic Consultative Consultative Group/Delegation Group/Delegation  Contingency factors: Quality of the decision Quality of the decision Acceptance of subordinates Acceptance of subordinates

9. Contingency Factors In The Normative Decision Model  Quality requirement (QR) How important is the quality of the decision? How important is the quality of the decision?  Commitment requirement (CR) How important is employee commitment? How important is employee commitment?  Leader information (LI) Does leader have enough information? Does leader have enough information?

10. Contingency Factors In The Normative Decision Model (con’t.)  Structure of the problem (ST) Is the problem clear?  Commitment probability (CP) How likely is employee commitment if leader makes the decision alone? How likely is employee commitment if leader makes the decision alone?  Goal congruence (GC) Do employees agree with organizational Do employees agree with organizational goals? goals?

11.  Employee conflict (CO) Is there conflict among employees over solution? Is there conflict among employees over solution?  Subordinate information (SI) Do employees have enough Do employees have enough information to make a high-quality decision? Contingency Factors In The Normative Decision Model (con’t.)

12. Normative Decision Model’s Implications For Managers  Leaders must understand the situation and how to use different decision styles  Participation is not always desirable  Leaders must pay attention to their followers’ needs and reactions when making decisions

13. Elements Of The Cognitive Resource Theory  The leader’s intelligence and experience  Contingency factors: Level of stress Level of stress Interpersonal conflict Interpersonal conflict Concerns about performance Concerns about performance

14. Cognitive Resource Theory’s Implications For Managers  The role of stress must be considered and assessed  Organizations must consider both leader’s intelligence and experience

15. People don’t fail; events doPeople don’t fail; events do Breakthrough leadership based on:Breakthrough leadership based on: Leading Change: Donald Winkler Getting things done Getting things done Accountability Accountability Straight talk Straight talk Collective effort Collective effort Trust Trust Equality Equality Intense listening Intense listening

16. Leadership In Action: Bill Gates and Mary Kay Ash Focus on smart people working on new problems Focus on smart people working on new problems Performance and intense competition Performance and intense competition Intellectual, confrontational and demanding Intellectual, confrontational and demanding Focus on God and family Focus on God and family Support women’s careers and their family Support women’s careers and their family Mother figure, nurturing and accessible Mother figure, nurturing and accessible Highly intelligent, passionate about their business, energetic, driven Highly intelligent, passionate about their business, energetic, driven

17. The Leadership Challenge Leader may be low-LPC who gains a sense of control and accomplishments by working in very low situational control Leader may be low-LPC who gains a sense of control and accomplishments by working in very low situational control Intervention may be necessary to help him learn to change the situation without creating chaos Intervention may be necessary to help him learn to change the situation without creating chaos Allow selection and building of cohesive team, provide leader with task training, and maintain his power Allow selection and building of cohesive team, provide leader with task training, and maintain his power

18. Prepared by the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology - SIOP © 1998 Industrial-Organizational Psychology Learning Module Diversity in the Workplace

19. Lesson Objectives Understand why diversity in the workplace matters Understand why diversity in the workplace matters Know the different types of diversity Know the different types of diversity Understand the challenges raised by workplace diversity Understand the challenges raised by workplace diversity Know how I-O psychologists help organizations manage diversity Know how I-O psychologists help organizations manage diversity Prepared by the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology - SIOP © 1998 At the end of this lecture, you should:

20. Why does diversity in the workplace matter? The service economy The service economy interactions between people are key interactions between people are key customer base is more diverse customer base is more diverse similarities between people ease process similarities between people ease process Globalization of business Globalization of business doing business with people from around world doing business with people from around world The changing labor market The changing labor market Company mergers and buy-outs Company mergers and buy-outs Prepared by the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology - SIOP © 1998

21. Types of Diversity Gender diversity Gender diversity more women in workforce today than ever more women in workforce today than ever better educated than ever better educated than ever stereotypes still remain stereotypes still remain glass ceiling, etc. glass ceiling, etc. Age diversity Age diversity as population ages, more older workers are available as population ages, more older workers are available re-entry of middle-aged women to work re-entry of middle-aged women to work retirees returning to supplement pension retirees returning to supplement pension internships bring in more younger employees internships bring in more younger employees Prepared by the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology - SIOP © 1998

22. Types of Diversity Cultural diversity Cultural diversity affects values, view of the world affects values, view of the world more than 40% of new entrants into U.S. workforce from non-“majority” groups more than 40% of new entrants into U.S. workforce from non-“majority” groups about 22% new immigrants about 22% new immigrants about 20% African-American or Hispanic about 20% African-American or Hispanic growing international business growing international business employees maintain ties to national and cultural heritage employees maintain ties to national and cultural heritage Prepared by the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology - SIOP © 1998

23. Other Types of Diversity (You May Not Have Thought Of) Family situations Family situations single employees (mothers and others) single employees (mothers and others) Physical and psychological disabilities Physical and psychological disabilities Americans with Disabilities Act Americans with Disabilities Act Sexual orientation Sexual orientation Political views Political views Personal idiosyncrasies Personal idiosyncrasies Prepared by the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology - SIOP © 1998

24. Challenges of Diversity Availability challenge Availability challenge in past employers could control diversity in past employers could control diversity more people than jobs more people than jobs qualified employees have become scarce qualified employees have become scarce employers must become more flexible employers must become more flexible realize “Different does not mean deficient” realize “Different does not mean deficient” Fairness challenge Fairness challenge in past, typically viewed as equal treatment in past, typically viewed as equal treatment Equal Employment Opportunity Equal Employment Opportunity now employers must embrace new diversity now employers must embrace new diversity essentially focus on “differences” essentially focus on “differences” Prepared by the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology - SIOP © 1998

25. Challenges of Diversity Synergy challenge Synergy challenge more and more group-based work more and more group-based work diversity can create positive and negative conflict diversity can create positive and negative conflict can facilitate creative problem-solving can facilitate creative problem-solving can close down communication can close down communication can derail group processes can derail group processes group leaders must minimize destructive conflict and maximize diversity of input group leaders must minimize destructive conflict and maximize diversity of input Prepared by the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology - SIOP © 1998

26. How do I-O psychologists help organizations manage diversity? Providing managers with training Providing managers with training how to recruit/hire diverse employees how to recruit/hire diverse employees how to orient/integrate new employees how to orient/integrate new employees Providing all employees with training Providing all employees with training realizing the differences that exist realizing the differences that exist learning how differences affect working environment learning how differences affect working environment how to maximize productivity without ignoring employee differences how to maximize productivity without ignoring employee differences Prepared by the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology - SIOP © 1998

27. Industrial-Organizational Psychology Learning Module Leadership and Gender Stereotypes Prepared by the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology - SIOP © 1998

28. Lesson Objectives Understand the leadership perceptions approach Understand the leadership perceptions approach Understand how gender stereotyping in organizations affects perceptions of leaders Understand how gender stereotyping in organizations affects perceptions of leaders Know some of the methods used to control stereotyping in organizations Know some of the methods used to control stereotyping in organizations At the end of this lecture you should: Prepared by the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology - SIOP © 1998

29. Leadership Perceptions Leadership is hard to define Leadership is hard to define but we know it when we see it! but we know it when we see it! Leadership Perceptions Approach Leadership Perceptions Approach people must first be recognized as leaders. people must first be recognized as leaders. then they are allowed to influence followers. then they are allowed to influence followers. followers determine the ultimate success of leaders. followers determine the ultimate success of leaders. Prepared by the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology - SIOP © 1998

30. General Model of Leadership Perceptions Leader behavior determines follower perceptions, which are associated with positive or negative outcomes. Leader behavior determines follower perceptions, which are associated with positive or negative outcomes. Outcomes such as success can also serve to shape follower perceptions. Outcomes such as success can also serve to shape follower perceptions. General Model: General Model: Leader Behavior Follower Perceptions Individual, Group, and Organizational Outcomes Prepared by the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology - SIOP © 1998

31. Gender and Leadership Perceptions Identical behavior from men and women is interpreted differently. Identical behavior from men and women is interpreted differently. Perceivers attach different labels to the same behaviors enacted by men and women. Perceivers attach different labels to the same behaviors enacted by men and women. One reason is because of gender stereotypes. One reason is because of gender stereotypes. Leader Behavior Follower Perceptions Individual, Group, and Organizational Outcomes Prepared by the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology - SIOP © 1998

32. Gender Stereotypes and Leadership Perceptions Stereotypes are expectations about members of certain groups. Stereotypes are expectations about members of certain groups. Gender-based stereotypes include beliefs about: Gender-based stereotypes include beliefs about: expected interpersonal behavior expected interpersonal behavior the types of roles or jobs best suited for men and women. the types of roles or jobs best suited for men and women. The role of gender stereotypes in employment was at issue in Price Waterhouse v. Hopkins. The role of gender stereotypes in employment was at issue in Price Waterhouse v. Hopkins. Prepared by the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology - SIOP © 1998

33. Gender Stereotypes and Leadership Perceptions Ann B. Hopkins was a high-performing, but masculine acting, prospective partner at PW. Ann B. Hopkins was a high-performing, but masculine acting, prospective partner at PW. Hopkins alleged she was denied partnership because of her gender. Hopkins alleged she was denied partnership because of her gender. PW countered that Hopkins had interpersonal problems (e.g., she was "macho"). PW countered that Hopkins had interpersonal problems (e.g., she was "macho"). Court eventually ruled that gender-based stereotyping influenced perceptions of her behavior. Court eventually ruled that gender-based stereotyping influenced perceptions of her behavior. Because she was a woman in a nontraditional role, Hopkins' behavior was seen as more extreme than men who behaved similarly. Because she was a woman in a nontraditional role, Hopkins' behavior was seen as more extreme than men who behaved similarly. Prepared by the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology - SIOP © 1998

34. Controlling our Stereotyping Everyone (or nearly everyone) engages in stereotyping. Everyone (or nearly everyone) engages in stereotyping. Most recognize it is inappropriate to judge others based on a stereotype. Most recognize it is inappropriate to judge others based on a stereotype. How can we learn to control our stereotyping? How can we learn to control our stereotyping? One way is through conscious control. One way is through conscious control. Prepared by the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology - SIOP © 1998

35. How do I/O psychologists help organizations control stereotyping? Identifying organizational consequences that gender and race stereotyping have Identifying organizational consequences that gender and race stereotyping have Training employees to gather individuating information about the stereotyped person Training employees to gather individuating information about the stereotyped person getting to know the person as an individual getting to know the person as an individual understanding benefits of diversity understanding benefits of diversity Training employers to effectively manage diversity Training employers to effectively manage diversity Helping to minimize the effects of stereotyping and unfair treatment of employees Helping to minimize the effects of stereotyping and unfair treatment of employees Prepared by the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology - SIOP © 1998

36. Sharing Perceptions Previous research indicates that the same behavior by men and women leaders results in different perceptions. Previous research indicates that the same behavior by men and women leaders results in different perceptions. Women are seen as more bossy and dominating. Women are seen as more bossy and dominating. Men are seen as having greater ability, skill, and intelligence. Men are seen as having greater ability, skill, and intelligence. Gender stereotypes influence our reactions, even without our awareness. Gender stereotypes influence our reactions, even without our awareness. Prepared by the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology - SIOP © 1998

37. The Power of Talk: Who Gets Heard and Why By Deborah Tannen

38. Linguistic Style A person’s characteristic speaking pattern. A set of culturally learned signals by which we not only communicate what we mean but also interpret others’ meaning and evaluate one another as people A person’s characteristic speaking pattern. A set of culturally learned signals by which we not only communicate what we mean but also interpret others’ meaning and evaluate one another as people

39. Linguistic Style Features include Features include Directness or indirectness Directness or indirectness Pacing & pausing Pacing & pausing Word choice Word choice Use of elements like jokes, figures of speech, stories, questions & apologies Use of elements like jokes, figures of speech, stories, questions & apologies Turn taking Turn taking

40. Linguistic Style Every utterance functions on two levels: Every utterance functions on two levels: Language communicates ideas Language communicates ideas Language negotiates relationships Language negotiates relationships

41. The Kicker Girls tend to learn conversational rituals that focus on the rapport dimension of relationships whereas boys tend to learn rituals that focus on the status dimension Girls tend to learn conversational rituals that focus on the rapport dimension of relationships whereas boys tend to learn rituals that focus on the status dimension

42. Linguistic Patterns One Up, One Down One Up, One Down Getting Credit Getting Credit Confidence & Boasting Confidence & Boasting Asking Questions Asking Questions

43. Linguistic Patterns One Up, One Down One Up, One Down Men tend to be sensitive to the power and attain one up Men tend to be sensitive to the power and attain one up Women tend to be sensitive to rapport and will take one down Women tend to be sensitive to rapport and will take one down Getting Credit Getting Credit Men say ‘I’ where women say ‘we’ Men say ‘I’ where women say ‘we’

44. Linguistic Patterns Confidence & Boasting Confidence & Boasting Women downplay certainty Women downplay certainty Men minimize doubts Men minimize doubts Asking Questions Asking Questions Can put you in a one down position, boys are more aware of this Can put you in a one down position, boys are more aware of this

45. The norms of behavior in the US business world are based on the style of interaction that is more common among men—at least American men. The norms of behavior in the US business world are based on the style of interaction that is more common among men—at least American men.

46. Conversational Rituals Conversation is ritual in the sense that we speak in ways our culture has conventionalized and expect certain types of responses. Conversation is ritual in the sense that we speak in ways our culture has conventionalized and expect certain types of responses. Apologies Apologies Feedback Feedback Compliments Compliments Ritual Opposition Ritual Opposition

47. Conversational Rituals Apologies Apologies Women say I’m sorry more often than men Women say I’m sorry more often than men Puts in one-down, even though other women know they aren’t really sorry Puts in one-down, even though other women know they aren’t really sorry Feedback Feedback Differing Styles Differing Styles Compliments Compliments Women pay more than men, puts at a disadvantage in the work place Women pay more than men, puts at a disadvantage in the work place

48. Conversational Rituals Ritual Opposition Ritual Opposition An exploration through verbal opposition An exploration through verbal opposition They put their ideas in the most certain and absolute form they can, and wait to see if they are challenged They put their ideas in the most certain and absolute form they can, and wait to see if they are challenged Being forced to defend an idea gives the opportunity to test it Being forced to defend an idea gives the opportunity to test it

49. Negotiating Authority Actual authority has to be negotiated day to day Actual authority has to be negotiated day to day Managing Up and Down Managing Up and Down Boys are rewarded for talking up their accomplishments, girls aren’t Boys are rewarded for talking up their accomplishments, girls aren’t Indirectness Indirectness The tendency to say what we mean without spelling it out The tendency to say what we mean without spelling it out Men are often more direct Men are often more direct

50. What to do? Become aware Become aware Make sure everyone is heard Make sure everyone is heard Be more flexible Be more flexible

51. Knowing “What” to do is not Enough: Turning Knowledge into Action By Jeff Pfeffer & Robert Sutton

52. We intuitively understand that knowing is not enough $60 billion spent on training annually $60 billion spent on training annually Training not implemented Training not implemented Billions for management consultants Billions for management consultants Why don’t top performers look to the Ivy League Schools? Why don’t top performers look to the Ivy League Schools?

53. Is there a gap? Even if evidence is strong, not always adopted Even if evidence is strong, not always adopted Performance not transferred across firms Performance not transferred across firms

54. Does it Matter? There’s too much information out there to successfully hoard many secrets There’s too much information out there to successfully hoard many secrets Most interventions are about things already known Most interventions are about things already known Although knowledge creation, benchmarking, and knowledge management may be important, transforming it into action is at least as important Although knowledge creation, benchmarking, and knowledge management may be important, transforming it into action is at least as important

55. Problems with Knowledge Management First, the conception of knowledge as explicit and quantifiable First, the conception of knowledge as explicit and quantifiable We treat knowledge like a warehouse item We treat knowledge like a warehouse item Do we build it into products? Do we build it into products? Do we develop new products based on it? Do we develop new products based on it? Working Knowledge – knowledge is transferred between people by stories, gossip and watching others work. Working Knowledge – knowledge is transferred between people by stories, gossip and watching others work.

56. Problems with Knowledge Management First (continued) First (continued) Tacit knowledge cannot be stored readily Tacit knowledge cannot be stored readily Knowledge storage and retrieval systems are often not developed by those who will use them Knowledge storage and retrieval systems are often not developed by those who will use them

57. Problems with Knowledge Management Second, it is conceptualized as distinct from philosophy or values Second, it is conceptualized as distinct from philosophy or values Third, we overestimate the importance of the tangible, specific, programmatic aspects of knowledge and underestimate the underlying philosophy that guides what is done and how Third, we overestimate the importance of the tangible, specific, programmatic aspects of knowledge and underestimate the underlying philosophy that guides what is done and how

58. Why Typical KM Practices Make the Gap Worse Emphasize technology and transfer of codified information Emphasize technology and transfer of codified information Treats knowledge as a tangible thing and separates it from its use Treats knowledge as a tangible thing and separates it from its use Formal systems can’t easily store tacit knowledge Formal systems can’t easily store tacit knowledge The people responsible don’t understand The people responsible don’t understand Philosophy is ignored Philosophy is ignored

59. Turning Knowledge into Action Why before how: Philosophy is important Why before how: Philosophy is important Knowing comes from doing and teaching others how Knowing comes from doing and teaching others how Action counts more than elegant plans and concepts Action counts more than elegant plans and concepts There is no doing without mistakes. What is the company’s response? There is no doing without mistakes. What is the company’s response?

60. Turning Knowledge into Action Fear fosters knowing-doing gaps, so drive it out Fear fosters knowing-doing gaps, so drive it out Beware of false analogies: fight the competition, not each other Beware of false analogies: fight the competition, not each other Measure what matters and what can help turn knowledge into action Measure what matters and what can help turn knowledge into action What leaders do, how they spend their time and how they allocate resources, matters What leaders do, how they spend their time and how they allocate resources, matters