1. Chapter 23 – Policies that lower the price of food by increasing supply

2. I. Implicit subsidies that lower prices to farmers A. LDCs use government polices to keep food prices low (price to consumer and price to farmer) 1. Discourages agricultural production in the country

3. 2. Is an implicit subsidy to consumers (mostly urban) since it keeps food prices down 3. Is an implicit tax on farmers since it keeps the prices they receive below world market prices a. Result is an income transfer from farmers to consumers

4. B. Noncompetitive procurement 1. Farmers are required to sell their crop (usually grain) to the government buyer for a below- market price 2. Amounts to a tax on growers

5. 3. Provides an incentive for farmers to switch from growing grain (main food of the poor) to growing a crop that can be sold at market prices (often fruits and vegetables eaten by the rich)

6. C. Administered prices 1. Prices at the farm-gate and at retail are set by the government a. Often set below the world market price

7. 2. Implicit tax discourages production 3. Gives farmers an incentive to sell on the black market

8. 4. Prices may not be allowed to vary by time or place a. Discourages storage b. Discourages transporting food to where supply might be low

9. D. Export taxes on ag products 1. Generate money for the government 2. Lower the price received by farmers because exporters pay them the world price minus the export tax a. Discourages agricultural production

10. E. Overvalued domestic currency 1. As development occurs, demand for foreign goods increases. This increases the demand for foreign currency, and thus raises its value relative to the domestic currency (or causes a fall in value of the domestic currency). The government attempts to stop this fall by fixing the exchange rate at a high value for the domestic currency.

11. 2. Example: Official exchange rate: 5 pesos = $1 Market exchange rate: 10 pesos = $1 Farmer exports 1 pound of beans which are going for $1/pound. Only gets 5 pesos at the official rate. Would have gotten 10 pesos at the market rate. Farmer is taxed 5 pesos/pound of beans exported.

12. 3. World Bank studies show that overvalued exchange rates have played the prime role in inhibiting agricultural performance

13. F. Limits on cash cropping 1. Government may limit the amount of cash crops that can be grown in order to encourage food crop production

14. 2. This policy may not work because: a. The region may have a comparative advantage in producing the cash crop Because of climate, soil, etc. it may be a better use of their resources to grow a cash crop to sell and use the money to import food

15. b. Cash crop production is often labor intensive thus providing jobs for poor landless laborers

16. II. Explicit taxation of agriculture vs. implicit food subsidies A. Want to avoid excessive taxation of agriculture 1. Producers commonly taxed 50% or more on farm products that are part of implicit food subsidy programs 2. Export taxes could be as high as 50-75% on farm products

17. B. Heavy taxation of agriculture: 1. Steers resources away from being used in agriculture 2. Slows improvements in productivity in agriculture 3. Lowers employment in agriculture 4. Slows the overall growth rate of per capita income

18. C. Explicit taxes 1. Examples: a. Tax ag land b. Tax ag income c. Tax ag products at the consumer level instead of at the farm level

19. 2. More likely to be applied equitably relative to other sectors of the economy 3. Do not favor production of one product over another 4. More economically efficient

20. III. Urban bias A. Policies that favor urban areas over rural such as: 1. Favor industrial development over agricultural development 2. Protect industry and tax agriculture 3. Channel resources from agriculture to industry (from rural to urban areas)

21. B. Urban bias slows growth of the entire economy 1. Most of the poor live in rural areas and work in agriculture a. 65% of people in LDCs (and >80% of the really poor) depend on ag for their income

22. 2. Return on investment is 2 to 3 times higher in agriculture

23. C. Urban bias comes about because of interests of powerful industrialists, urban workers, big farmers 1. LDCs shifting away from urban bias since the mid-1980s