1. Personal and Social Development
Chapter Three
Educational Psychology: Developing Learners
6th edition
Jeanne Ellis Ormrod

2. Personality Development
Temperament
Parenting
Culture
Peers
Self-socialization
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Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition

3. Temperament
Temperament is the genetic predisposition to respond in particular ways to one’s physical and social environments.
Certain cultural groups encourage certain types of behaviors.
In the classroom, there may be multiple temperaments.
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All rights reserved.
Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition

4. Accommodating Students’ Diverse Temperaments
For students with high energy levels, minimize downtime between activities
Be especially warm and attentive with very shy students
When students have trouble adapting to new circumstances, give them advance notice of unusual activities and provide extra structure and reassurance
If students seem overwhelmed by noisy or chaotic situations, find or create a more calm and peaceful environment for them
Teach self-regulation strategies to students who act impulsively
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Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition

5. Parents’ Influences Attachment Parenting Style
Children with secure attachments to their parents are more likely to be amiable, affectionate, independent, self-confident, and cooperative than those with insecure or no attachments.
Parenting Style
Children of authoritative parents (characterized by emotional warmth, high standards for behavior, explanation and consistent enforcement of rules, and inclusion of children in decision making) are more apt to be happy, energetic, self-confident, likeable, and popular.
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All rights reserved.
Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition

6. Cultural Expectations and Socialization
Culture is the behaviors and belief systems of a long-standing social group.
Children develop a cultural “lens” through which appropriate values, behaviors, etc… are determined.
Socialization
Not all cultures endorse the same values and behaviors.
When expectations at school differ from those within culture or at home, students may experience culture shock.
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All rights reserved.
Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition

7. Peer Influences Peers define options available for leisure time.
Peers serve as role models for acceptable behavior.
Also provide reinforcement for acceptable behavior and sanctions for not engaging in acceptable behavior
Peer pressure is greatest during junior high
Peers can encourage fairness and cooperation but may also encourage aggression, criminal activity, and other antisocial behaviors.
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Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition

8. Self-Socialization
Self-socialization is the tendency to integrate personal observations and others’ input into self-constructed standards for behavior and to choose actions accordingly.
“Do I really want to do that? I don’t think I agree with that, and therefore I won’t engage in that behavior.”
The decisions a child makes are dependent upon his/her experiences and developmental level.
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All rights reserved.
Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition

9. Development of a Sense of Self
Sense of Self: Perceptions, beliefs, judgments, and feelings about who you are
Self-worth
Self-efficacy
Factors influencing the development of self views
Previous performance
Behaviors of others
Group memberships and achievements
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All rights reserved.
Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition

10. Developmental Changes in Sense of Self
Childhood
Children focus on physical, concrete characteristics.
Early Adolescence
Children’s focus turns to more general traits, not as much emphasis on the physical.
Late Adolescence
Majority of older adolescents have positive self-concepts and overall mental health.
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All rights reserved.
Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition

11. Erik Erikson’s Eight Stages of Psychosocial Development
Trust vs. mistrust (infancy)
Is the world a trustworthy place?
Autonomy vs. shame and doubt (toddler years)
Am I capable of doing things on my own?
Initiative vs. guilt (preschool years)
Is my growing independence supported?
Industry vs. inferiority (elementary school years)
Am I encouraged to make and do things, and then praised for my accomplishments?
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All rights reserved.
Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition

12. Erik Erikson’s Eight Stages of Psychosocial Development
Identity vs. role confusion (adolescence)
Who am I? What do I believe in? What path will I choose for myself?
Intimacy vs. isolation (young adulthood)
Can I fully commit to another person?
Generativity vs. stagnation (middle adulthood)
What can I contribute to the next generation?
Integrity vs. despair (late adulthood)
Do I have regrets, or am I satisfied with how my life went?
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Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition

13. Marcia’s Views on Identity
Different statuses of identity identified by Marcia based on certain patterns of behavior
Moratorium
Individual is searching for an identity, considering all the options available for a career and belief system.
Identity Diffusion
Individual has not made any commitments to a career or belief system nor has he/she considered them or engaged in exploratory behavior.
Foreclosure
Individual has made a firm commitment to an occupation and belief system but has not engaged in any exploration of other alternatives.
Identity Achievement
Individual has gone through a period of moratorium and has emerged with a commitment to a career and belief system.
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All rights reserved.
Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition

14. Development of Peer Relationships and Interpersonal Understandings
Teach important social skills
Provide emotional and social support
Different types of peer relationships have different impacts
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All rights reserved.
Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition

15. Friendships Friends are peers with whom we spend one-on-one time.
Close friends are similar in age and usually the same sex and have the same interests.
Close friendships foster self-esteem and provide a sense of identity.
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All rights reserved.
Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition

16. Larger Social Groups
Initially, the peer group is comprised of a single sex but can be of mixed sex at adolescence.
Peers groups consist of:
Cliques
Exclusive in nature
3 to 10 individuals
Crowds
Jocks and brains
Can take form of subculture
Gangs
Cohesive social group characterized by initiation rites, distinctive clothing, etc
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All rights reserved.
Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition

17. Romantic Relationships
Romantic relationships usually evolve from crushes to real love.
Choices are based on attractiveness or social status.
The benefits of romantic relationships include:
Companionship, affection, and security
Opportunities to experiment with new social skills and interpersonal behaviors
Romantic relationships may also wreak havoc on adolescents’ emotions.
Adolescence may be an especially confusing time for homosexual and bisexual students.
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All rights reserved.
Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition

18. Popularity Popularity vs. high-status Rejected students
Popular students may or may not hold high status positions but are considered kind and trustworthy by other students.
Rejected students
Viewed as being undesirable social partners
Neglected students
Almost seem “invisible”
Very few positive or negative ratings
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All rights reserved.
Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition

19. Social Cognition
The ability to think about how other people are likely to think, act, and react
Highly developed social cognition skills very valuable
Related to the development of a Theory of Mind
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All rights reserved.
Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition

20. The Theory of Mind
Childhood: Not until age 4 or 5 do children recognize that another person might have “other thoughts.”
Early Adolescence: Children recognize multiple feelings and thoughts, even when they are contradictory.
Late Adolescence: Children are more in tune with others’ intentions, and take time to decipher motives and consider other perspectives.
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All rights reserved.
Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition

21. Aggression and Social Cognition
There are different types of aggressive behavior.
Physical aggression is more common in boys.
Relational aggression is more common in girls.
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All rights reserved.
Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition

22. Aggression and Social Cognition
Proactive Aggression
Initiating aggressive behavior to reach a goal
Results in difficulty maintaining friendships and often being labeled as bullies
Reactive Aggression
Aggressive reaction to provocation or frustration
E.g., Columbine
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All rights reserved.
Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition

23. Possible Causes of Aggression
Poor perspective-taking skills
Misinterpretation of social cues
Prevalence of self-serving goals
Poor social problem-solving skills
Beliefs about appropriateness and effectiveness of aggression
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All rights reserved.
Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition

24. Fostering Social Skills
Provide numerous opportunities for social interaction
Plan cooperative activities
Help students interpret social situations in an accurate and productive way
Teach specific social skills, provide opportunities for students to practice them, and give feedback
Label and praise appropriate behaviors when they occur
Describe students as having desirable social behaviors
Establish and enforce rules for acceptable classroom behavior
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All rights reserved.
Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition

25. Moral and Prosocial Development
Prosocial behavior is behavior directed toward promoting the well-being of another.
Includes sharing, helping, and comforting
Morality encompasses prosocial behavior.
One’s general standards about right and wrong
Includes such traits as honesty, fairness, and respect for other people
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All rights reserved.
Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition

26. Developmental Trends in Morality and Prosocial Behavior
Children use internal standards to evaluate behavior at an early age.
Children increasingly distinguish between moral and conventional transgressions.
Children’s understanding of fairness evolves throughout early and middle childhood.
Children’s ability to respond emotionally to others’ harm and distress increases over the school years.
Children increasingly take circumstances into account in their evaluations of behavior.
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All rights reserved.
Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition

27. Development of Moral Reasoning: Kohlberg’s Theory
“Why” of decision is the most important, not “what” (use of the moral dilemma).
Kohlberg drew on Piaget’s two distinct stages of moral reasoning.
Morality of constraint: Focuses on consequences and authority figures
Morality of cooperation: Focuses on intent
Kohlberg’s study found stage-like progression of moral reasoning.
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All rights reserved.
Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition

28. Level & Stage Age Range Examples
Preconventional
Stage 1: Avoidance of punishment
Stage 2: Exchange of favors
Preschool – elementary; some junior high; few high school students
Stage 1: “I would cheat if I knew I wouldn’t get caught.”
Stage 2: “I’ll let you copy mine if you do my homework.”
Conventional
Stage 3: Good child
Stage 4: Law and order
Few older elementary children, some junior high, many high school students
(Stage 4 does not typically appear until high school)
Stage 3: “I’m not going to tell because I want her to like me.”
Stage 4: “You can’t do that because the teacher said no.”
Postconventional
Stage 5: Social contract
Stage 6: Universal ethical principle
Rarely seen before college (stage 6 is extremely rare)
Stage 5: “In this case, the rule may be wrong.”
Stage 6: “You shouldn’t lie because it violates the Golden Rule.”
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All rights reserved.
Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition

29. Criticisms of Kohlberg’s Theory
Politically and culturally biased
Originally based only on interviews with individuals from western societies
Gender biased
Originally only studied boys and men
Carol Gilligan’s criticisms of Kohlberg’s theory:
Doesn’t include compassion and caring for those in need as “higher development”
Females socialized to stress interpersonal relationships
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All rights reserved.
Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition

30. Factors Affecting Moral Development
Level of moral reasoning
People who exhibit more advanced moral reasoning behave more morally.
Guilt, perspective taking, and empathy
Prosocial children are often very empathic and have
above-average perspective-taking skills.
Personal motives
Children’s needs and goals come into play.
Self-perceptions
Commitment to moral values is integrated into the overall identity.
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All rights reserved.
Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition

31. Encouraging Moral Behavior and Development in the Classroom
Encourage and reward prosocial behavior
Discuss the reasons why some behaviors are inappropriate
Model moral and prosocial behavior
Incorporate moral issues and dilemmas into classroom discussions
Be sensitive to cultural differences
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All rights reserved.
Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition

32. Encouraging Moral Behavior and Development in the Classroom
Use induction
Provide practice in recognizing others’ emotional states
Encourage perspective taking, empathy, and prosocial behavior
Expose students to numerous models
Talk about moral issues and dilemmas
Engage students in community service
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All rights reserved.
Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition

33. Considering Diversity in Personal and Social Development
Cultural and Ethnic Differences
Strength of ethnic identity fluctuates depending on the context and situation.
Some minority students may have high self-esteem in general but little faith in their academic ability.
Interpersonal skills vary from person to person and culture to culture.
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All rights reserved.
Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition

34. Considering Diversity in Personal and Social Development
Gender Differences
Boys tend to have more positive perceptions about their physical appearance.
Boys rate themselves more highly in mathematics, while girls rate themselves more highly in reading and literature.
Girls have smaller groups of friends.
Boys are more likely to be physically aggressive, whereas girls are more likely to show relational aggression.
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All rights reserved.
Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition

35. Considering Diversity in Personal and Social Development
Socioeconomic Differences
Children from low-income homes are more likely to have challenges.
But may still have positive self-concepts, good interpersonal skills, and strong moral standards
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All rights reserved.
Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition

36. The Big Picture
Standards for acceptable behavior are essential for the optimal development of our students.
Interaction with others provides the impetus for many of our students’ personal, social, and moral advancements.
Development is best fostered within the context of a warm, supportive environment.
Students’ personal, social, and moral understandings are self-constructed
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All rights reserved.
Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition