1. Interest Groups and Lobbyists in American Politics An American tradition? Logic of lobbying is transparent – people who want to influence the decisions of government understand the advantages of banding together and asking powerful friends to help them out – governments see the positives of lobbying help them gain support provides both political and technical information – modern politics breeds professional lobbyists Remember Madison’s Federalist No. 10 – unpopular, but to paraphrase, the cures are worse than disease Madison’s solution to the dilemma – social and institutional pluralism

2. Development of Interest Groups The colonial era – insider lobbying – public interest lobbying The early republic – factions flourished – political parties emerged – coordinated efforts emerged to shape government – by 1830s many organizations in America Tocqueville – initially skeptical then viewed such groups as essential to an egalitarian social and political system Later observers not so sure – GAR puts drain on federal budget – new groups such as large-scale industrial corporations and trusts engaged in lobbying – their methods are viewed negatively – exposed by “muckrakers” – led to laws regulating child labor, wages and work hours, and so on Contemporary view? – Unseemly? – Selfish? – Indispensable?

3. The Pluralist Defense of Interest Groups David Truman’s The Governmental Process (1951 ) – defense of the legitimate role of interest groups – consequence of economic development Moreover, the American political system is particularly conducive to pluralist politics. – decentralized – elected officials need to form broad-based coalitions Idealized conception of system: – Economic competition produces efficient markets, while political competition produces public interest? Reality: system is biased – money, information, access to authority, skill, bargaining power are distributed unevenly – Advantages the small at the expense of the large? – Schattschneider: “The flaw in the pluralist heaven is that the heavenly chorus sings with a strong upper-class accent.”

4. What Do Lobbyists and Interest Groups Do? First, they try to survive. – The role of Salisbury’s entrepreneur: examples are Nader and Schlafly – organizations that survive on small contributions and mass membership face particular challenges to organizational maintenance – must focus on the issues that continue to generate contributions – must pursue other means of securing member support Strategies of Influence: insiders vs. outsiders – Lobbying – Electioneering – Grassroots lobbying – Litigation – Demonstrations (politics out of doors) Success as a function of goals: – broad vs. narrow/status quo vs. change Effectiveness and access Interest group resources: money, information – Money, information, expertise, strategic position, size?

5. The Collective Action Problem: Size =resource?  The importance of organization: Potential groups vs. actual groups  The nature of collective goods Why pay if you can get it for free? Why pay if your contribution has no effect?  Moral 1: Small groups have an advantage  How do large groups compensate?  Selective incentives and coercion  Moral 2: The members of large groups may not care about the groups’ policy goals! (Their reasons for joining may lie elsewhere: unions, farm organizations.)

6. How Public Interest Groups Overcome Free Riding Why are there so many public interest lobbies? – rationality is overcome by the willingness to contribute to groups espousing causes they care about. – moral incentives – the personal satisfaction of self-expression. Other large organizations circumvent the collective action problem by offering “selective incentives:” – benefits that can be denied to individuals who do not join and contribute: magazines and baseball caps …

7. The Growth in the Number of Contemporary Interest Groups Interest group universe is expanding. – many sponsored by institutions such as corporations and labor unions, etc. – government entities (off-loading membership costs) state and local colleges and universities tribes Patrons Many prominent public interest groups, are financed mainly by membership dues and small contributions. Memberships and budgets fluctuate with economic circumstances.

8. Why Have Interest Groups Proliferated? Social ferment of civil rights and Vietnam eras spawned many organizations that lobbied for change. Increases in affluence and education of middle class provided growing clientele. Technological advances made coalescing as a group more possible. More government leads to more interest groups.

9. Why Have Interest Groups Proliferated? (continued) Inspiration of rival groups and imitators Encouragement of the federal government – stimulated the organization of business interests U.S. Chamber of Commerce Business Roundtable – encouraged the proliferation of organizations in the nonprofit and public sectors American Farm Bureau Federation National Organization for Women Emergence to defend government programs

10. Fragmentation and Specialization Fragmentation of old interests – new organizations form when new issues pull old groups apart – farm policy (example= milk producers) – federally sponsored medical research (NIH) Increasingly complex issues and fragmented policy processes force groups to specialize to be effective Fragmented policy processes create more opportunities for interest groups

11. Electoral Politics and PACS Electioneering/PACS – FECA 1971-74 provided incentives for creation of PACs – Explosive Growth of PACS PACs arise in diverse organizations – labor, corporate, trade/membership/health, personal PACs of MCs Focus on policy—narrow versus broad – Influence? formidable barriers which way does the influence run?

12. The Persistence of Varying Interpretations – Pluralists There is seldom a single public interest that unites us all Thus, politics should allow the free interplay of competing interests in the hopes that a rough approximation of the public interest might be produced. – Hyperpluralists Out of control competition. No integrating set of goals. Inconsistent policy. Are not some interests more legitimate than others? Confusion of implementation and administration with policy- making. – Elitists Little of this activity truly matters. An elite is control of American politics. It sets the agenda and calls the shots.