1. Status - socially defined position in a group Statuses
Chapter 4, Section 1
Social Structure - interrelated statuses and roles that guide human relationships
Status - socially defined position in a group
Statuses
Ascribed Status - inherited traits, or assigned automatically when reach a certain age
Achieved Status - acquired on the basis of a person’s direct effort (competition) (based on knowledge, skills, ability)
Master Status - plays biggest role in person’s life and determining your social identity
* Can be either Ascribed or Achieved

2. Chapter 4, Section 1
Roles
Role - Behavior, rights, obligations expected of the person having that
status
Reciprocal Roles- corresponding roles that define the patterns of interaction between related statuses
Role Expectation - socially determined behavior expected of person to perform a role
Role Performance - actual behavior of person performing a role
*actual behavior DOES NOT match society’s expectations
Role Conflict - fulfilling one role interferes with fulfilling another
Role Strain - difficulty of a person meeting an expectation of a single status

3. 7 Major social institutions: 1. Family 5. Economy
Chapter 4, Section 1
Social Institutions - system of statuses, roles, values, norms ORGANIZED to satisfy ONE or MORE of BASIC NEEDS of society.
7 Major social institutions:
1. Family 5. Economy
2. Politics 6. Science
3. Religion 7. Sports
4. Education
Basic needs of society:
1. Physical and emotional support
2. Transmitting knowledge
3. Producing goods/services
4. Maintaining social control

4. Nature of Social Interaction - Takes many forms,
Chapter 4, Section 2
Nature of Social Interaction - Takes many forms,
Some stabilize social structure, some promote change
5 Types of Interaction
1. Exchange - occurs whenever people, groups, societies interact in an effort to receive a reward or return for your action.
Ex. Dating, friendship, worker
Reciprocity - is the root of EXCHANGE; idea if you do something for someone then they owe you
Exchange Theory - people are motivated by self-interest behavior that is rewarded tends to be repeated
*if cost is greater than reward, behavior is likely to stop

5. 2. Competition - occurs when 2 or more persons or groups oppose
Chapter 4, Section 2
5 Types of Interaction
2. Competition - occurs when 2 or more persons or groups oppose
each other to attain a goal that only one can achieve
-can be positive(if follow accepted rules of conduct); can be negative (lead to psych stress, inequality, or conflict)
3. Conflict - emphasis is on defeating the opponent
-deliberate attempt to control by force, oppose, or harm, or resist the will of another person. (Few rules of conduct and sometimes ignored.)
George Simmel identified 4 sources of conflict:
Wars
2. Disagreements
Legal disputes
Clashes over ideology (religion/politics)

6. Conflict can be positive: 1 - reinforces group boundaries
Chapter 4, Section 2
5 Types of Interaction
Conflict can be positive:
1 - reinforces group boundaries
2 - strengthens group loyalty
3 - draws attention away from internal problems
4 - leads to social change by bringing up problems
and forcing opposing sides to seek solutions

7. 1.Compromise - both parties give up something for a mutual agreement
Chapter 4, Section 2
4. Cooperation - occurs when 2 or more persons or group work together to achieve a goal that will benefit many people
5. Accommodation - state of balance between cooperation and conflict; Most interactions fall in this category
Many forms:
1.Compromise - both parties give up something for a
mutual agreement
2. Truce - conflict halted until compromise is made
3. Mediation - 3rd party acts as an advisor so an agreement
can be reached
4. Arbitration - 3rd party provides binding decision.

8. Most common way to classify societies is their SUBSISTENCE STRATEGIES
Chapter 4, Section 3
Types of Societies
Most common way to classify societies is their SUBSISTENCE STRATEGIES
The way in which a society uses its technology to provide for the needs of its members
Simple System
-Division of labor (specialization by individuals or groups)
-(in performance of economic tasks) is mainly involved in meeting the basic needs (particularly food) of their society
-as subsistence strategies become more efficient (more technology), it takes fewer people to provide for basic needs therefore the division of labor becomes more complex because there is more time to pursue new occupations.

9. Pre-Industrial Society - food production (human and animal labor)
Chapter 4, Section 3
Pre-Industrial Society
- food production (human and animal labor)
- main economic function subdivided into:
Hunting and Gathering - (Pre-Industrial)
- main form of subsistence is the daily collection of
plants and animals
- mobile to search for food
- no permanent villages
- limited number of members
- most decisions made by general agreement
- family main social unit

10. Pastoral Societies - Pre-Industrial
Chapter 4, Section 3
Pastoral Societies - Pre-Industrial
-rely on domestic herd animals therefore increased food
supply enables pastoral societies to support more people
-food surplus gives rise to economic and political institutions
creating inequalities in wealth and providing goods to be traded
-transmission of wealth and power from one generation to another forms typical form of government = Hereditary Chieftainship

11. Horticultural Societies - Pre-Industrial -vegetables main food source
Chapter 4, Section 3
Horticultural Societies - Pre-Industrial
-vegetables main food source
-slash/burn technology
-food surplus = some don’t have to produce food therefore new roles emerge (ex. traders, shamans (religious leaders) craftsmen)
-have relatively permanent villages

12. Agricultural Societies - Pre-Industrial
Chapter 4, Section 3
Agricultural Societies - Pre-Industrial
-animals and plows used in tilling of fields
-higher crop yields more population
-also fewer needed in crop production
-also fewer needed in crop production therefore people
began new roles, power concentrated in the hands of a few.
-power transferred from one generation to next
-engage in warfare
-trade (barter) important in society
-status differences arise - landowners, peasants

13. Industrial Societies -shift from production of food to production of
Chapter 4, Section 3
Industrial Societies
-shift from production of food to production of
manufactured goods
-bulk of production carried out through use of machinery
-Industrialization leads to urbanization
-education done outside home
-need for mass literacy
-religion loses ground as only source of morality due to use
of values and beliefs stemming from science, education,
government.
-individual has more control over their position in the social
structure - not just inherited

14. Post-Industrial Society
Chapter 4, Section 3
Post-Industrial Society
-much of economy is involved in the production of
information and provision of services
-result of transition from Industrial to Post Industrial
-standard of living higher
-wages higher
-science/tech improved quality of life
-more career advancement

15. Why Societies Hold Together (contrasting societies)
Chapter 4, Section 3
Why Societies Hold Together (contrasting societies)
Pre-Industrial Societies held together by Mechanical Solidarity
-close knit relationships that result when a small group of
people share same values and perform same tasks.
-As society becomes more complex: society is held together by: Organic Solidarity
-impersonal social relationships that arise with increased job
specialization
-individuals can no longer take care of their needs –
therefore all become dependent on others for aspects of
their survival

16. Final Way to Contrast a Society
Chapter 4, Section 3
Final Way to Contrast a Society
-based on the structure of social relationships and the
degree of shared values among members
-Gemeinschaft - community
-society where most members know each other
-activity centers on the family and community
-strong sense of group solidarity

17. Gesellschaft - society
Chapter 4, Section 3
Gesellschaft - society
-where most social relationships found or are based on need
rather than emotion
-impersonal and temporary relationships
-traditional values weak
-individual goals more important than group goals

18. Characteristics of Groups 1. Set of 2 or more people 2. Interaction
Chapter 4, Section 4
Characteristics of Groups
1. Set of 2 or more people
2. Interaction
3. Must have shared expectations
4. Possess some degree of common identity
Groups can be LARGE/SMALL, FORMAL/INFORMAL
Types of Group Structures
Aggregate - people gather without organization or pattern
of interaction
ex. Waiting in line to get a ticket - movie, plane, concert
Social Category - groups of people who do NOT interact at all yet are CLASSIFIED together due to a SHARED TRAIT or COMMON STATUS
ex. Students, women, men, elderly, ethnic groups

19. Groups differentiate on the basis of :
Chapter 4, Section 4
Groups differentiate on the basis of :
1. Time - how often the group meets
ex. Family-Off/On; different times but for the most of your life
*regardless of group contact is NOT continuous
2. Organization Structure - formal/informal
Formal group - structure, goals, activities of group clearly defined
Informal group - no official structure or established rule conduct
3. Size - varies greatly
Dyad = smallest group with 2 people; each member has direct control over the groups existence because if one leaves the group CEASES to EXIST
Triad = 3 person group
group is independent because NO ONE individual can break the group therefore decision making is usually easier; sm grp = up to 15

20. Secondary Group = interaction is impersonal and temporary in nature
Chapter 4, Section 4
Types of Groups
Ways to classify: Degree of intimacy between members
Continuum between Primary/Secondary group relationships
Family Friends School Clubs Classroom Job
Primary Secondary
Primary Group = small group who interact over a relatively long period of time on both direct and personal basis
Ex. communication is deep and intense, structure informal, personal satisfaction of primary importance; *family - usually most PRIMARY
Secondary Group = interaction is impersonal and temporary in nature
Ex. involves reaction to part of person’s personality; person’s importance in group involves their function in that group; person who drops from group – replaceable; *important because a secondary group usually organized around a goal; * within a secondary group may development primary group

21. Chapter 4, Section 4
Reference Group - any group with whom individuals identify and whose attitudes and values they adopt
ex. Friendship groups, school clubs, occupation
*can either have a positive or negative effect on behavior
All groups have boundaries or methods of telling who are members and who is not
In Group - group that a person belongs to and identifies with characteristics
1. Group members tend to separate themselves from other groups through
use of symbols (name, clothes, etc)
2. Members view themselves in terms of positive images
(outgroups viewed negative)
3. Ingroups generally compete with outgroups (possible conflict)
Out group - any group that the person does not belong to or identify with

22. Social Network Characteristics
Chapter 4, Section 4
Social Network Characteristics
Direct relationships - interact with primary and secondary groups
Indirect relationships - people we know or who know us but have little interaction (friend of friend)
No clear boundaries
No Common sense of identity
*they DO give us a sense of community and provide us with careers and social advancement
We all belong to more than one group and interact with more than one set of people therefore the web of relationships that is formed by the whole of our interactions with others is called SOCIAL NETWORK

23. Leader - people who influence the attitudes and opinions of others
Chapter 4, Section 4
Group Functions
Leader - people who influence the attitudes and opinions of
others
Instrumental Leaders - task oriented
Expressive Leaders - emotion oriented

24. Structure of Formal Organizations
Chapter 4, Section 5
Structure of Formal Organizations
Large complex secondary group that has been established to achieve specific goals
Formal Organization - school, business, government
Structure - bureaucracy = ranked authority structure guided by specific rules
Max Weber’s Model of Bureaucracy
1. Division of Labor
2. Ranking Authority
3. Employment based on formal qualifications
4. Rules and Regulations
5. Specific lines of promotion - advancement

25. Chapter 4, Section 5
Advantages
1. Get things done with speed and efficiency
2. Large amount of production output
3. Create order by defining job tasks
4. Stable because people come and go but the organization remains the same
Disadvantages
1. Individual goals within the organization get lost
2. People - job becomes a ritual and creativity is lost
3. Rules take the place of common sense
4. Employees are often promoted to higher jobs than they are qualified to do
5. Red tape
6. Real power tends to end up in the hands of only a few (oligarchies)
This tendency is called IRON LAW OF OLIGARCHY (Sociologist Robert Michels)

26. Work expands to fill the time available for its completion
Chapter 4, Section 5
PARKINSON’S LAW
Work expands to fill the time available for its completion
If person in this system is overworked he will want to have subordinates to work under him. Instead of lessening the work load, it increases because he now must approve all they do.