1. ORGANIC MOLECULES Carbohydrates, Lipids, Proteins & Nucleic Acids

2. CARBOHYDRATES Carbohydrates are the most common organic compounds in nature. They  Are an important source of chemical energy for living organisms  Are used as energy reserves in plants and animals  Form structural components such as cellulose cell walls in plants and chitin cell walls in fungi  Form part of both DNA and RNA  Combine with proteins and lipids to form glycoproteins and glycolipids as in cell membranes

3. Monosaccharides Meaning single sugars. These are the basic subunit of carbohydrates. They contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen in a 1 : 2 : 1 ratio, eg. Glucose - C 6 H 12 O 6 The 3 types of monosaccharides are: Triose PentoseHexose H H- c-o- H C c c o H o- H C c c c c H -o H Cc c cc H GlyceraldehydeRibose, DeoxyriboseGlucose, Galactose

4. Disaccharides – Meaning 2 sugars. Formed when 2 sugars bond together by a condensation or dehydration synthesis reaction. Two single sugars (monomers) join by 1 losing a hydrogen (H + ) ion and the other losing a hydroxide (OH-) ion that go into the formation of a water molecule. The remaining part of the monomer is called the residue. The common disaccharide, sucrose, consists of a glucose and a fructose residue bonded together.

5. Sucrose = glucose and fructose Glucose Fructose O Glycosidic Bond

6. Condensation reactions can be reversed. If a molecule of water is added to a disaccharide between the monosaccharide residues, the disaccharide will split into the original monosaccharides. This is a hydrolysis reaction.

7. Polysaccharides – Meaning many sugars. These are formed through a series of condensation reactions where many monosaccharides are joined together. Common examples include: Starch – Used to store excess sugar molecules in plants as an energy store. Cellulose – A structural polysaccharide used to support cell walls and stiffen the bodies of plants. This is the most abundant organic compound found in nature. Glycogen – Made and stored in animal liver or muscle tissue, where it is readily available as an energy reserve. These 3 polysaccharides are all composed of a series of glucose residues, however their arrangement differs. See page 14 of text. Complex polysaccharides are those that consist of different monosaccharide subunits in the same molecule, eg. Murein – found in the cell walls of bacteria.

8. Carbohydrate structure Monosaccharide Disaccharide Polysaccharides Starch Glycogen Cellulose

9. LIPIDS Fats (solids) & oils (liquids), used as long term energy storage molecules. Fats are composed of glycerol and 3 fatty acid molecules and are insoluble. Fatty substances that store about twice the energy carbohydrates do. They contain Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen but a much higher proportion of Hydrogen atoms to Carbon and Oxygen atoms than carbohydrates. Some lipid molecules contain atoms of phosphorous – forming phospholipids which are the major component of cell membranes. Others contain nitrogen. They are non-polar, hydrophobic molecules. This allows them to form an effective barrier between 2 watery environments. They also include steroids (hormone and vitamins).

10. In cells, lipids have 3 important functions. 1.energy storage: they have twice the amount of energy as carbohydrates 2.structural components of cells 3.specific biological functions, such as the transmission of chemical signals both within and between cells.

11. SATURATED & UNSATURATED FATTY ACIDS Fatty AcidStructureEg’s Saturated Single bonds between carbon atoms. The max. number of hydrogen atoms are attached to each carbon atom. Therefore chains of fatty acids pack tightly together. Therefore more bonding b/w chains Therefore need more energy to “move apart”. Therefore have a higher melting point. Therefore tend to be solid at room temp. Animals: Lard, butter, fats, blubber Unsaturated Double bonds between some carbon atoms. Don’t have the max. number of hydrogen atoms per carbon atom. Therefore the chains don’t pack together as tightly. Therefore less bonding b/w chains. Therefore need less energy to move apart. Therefore have a lower melting point. Therefore tend to be liquid at room temp. Plants: oils of olives, canola, sunflower, aromatic oils of plants

12. SATURATED & UNSATURATED FATTY ACIDS Saturated Fatty Acids O H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H Unsaturated Fatty Acids O H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C=C-C-C=C-C-C-C-C-H H H H H H H H H H H H H

13. Examples of Lipids 1 Triglycerides Most abundant lipids Economical store of energy - eg. as oils in plant seeds - as fat deposits under animals skin Glycerol Fatty Acids

14. Examples of Lipids 2 Phospholipids Form cell membranes The phosphate end is attracted to water (hydrophillic) while the fatty end is repelled, (hydrophobic). The Hydrophobic ends turn inwards in the membrane to form a double lipid layer as found in cell membranes. 3 Steroids Different structure to other lipids. 3 rings of “6-carbon” atoms each and a fourth ring containing “5- carbon” atoms. Examples include cholesterol, testosterone and oestrogen.

15. NUCLEIC ACIDS Very, very large molecule Always contains carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and phosphorus Made up of long chains of molecular units called NUCLEOTIDES. Eg’s. Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA), & Ribonucleic Acid (RNA) FUNCTION – Store and transfer genetic information RNA & DNA NUCLEOTIDE

16. Deoxyribonucleic acid – DNA 1 In Prokaryotes – DNA found in cytoplasm In Eukaryotes – DNA found in nucleus & also mitochondria & chloroplasts Organised into segments called genes Genes code for production of proteins, determining inherited characteristics. GENOME is all of an organisms genes Genes are the recipe, the proteins do the work. The products of the genome is called the PROTEOME –the entire collection of proteins in an organism. There are 20-25 000 genes in humans. There are more than 200 000 proteins.

17. Deoxyribonucleic acid – DNA 2 DNA is a macromolecule made of many nucleotides. Each nucleotide is made of: a phosphate group a deoxyribose sugar – a 5 carbon sugar, and a base There are 4 types of bases. 1.Adenine & Guanine – the purines having a double ring structure 2.Cytosine & Thymine – the pyrimidines having a double ring structure

18. Deoxyribonucleic acid – DNA 3 DNA is double stranded with bases bonding in the centre. Adenine always bonds with Thymine Cytosine always bonds with Guanine This is due to the Complementary Base Pairing rules.

19. Ribonucleic Acid – RNA DNA is used to make RNA. Ribonucleic Acid RNA is used to make Proteins RNA is single stranded. Thymine is replaced by Uracil. Bases RNA is formed in the nucleus, but passes into the cytoplasm for protein synthesis. Three main forms are – Ribosomal, Messenger and Transfer. sugar phosphate backbone

20. PROTEINS  These are very complex molecules that make up 50% of our dry weight.  They all contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen and many also contain sulphur.  There are thousands of different types of proteins with varied functions.  Some form structural components, others are enzymes, hormones or carrier molecules, (Eg haemoglobin), and some form channels in membranes.  They consist of chains of smaller subunits called amino acids (AA’s). There are 20 amino acids commonly found in proteins.  Each organism has it’s own unique AA’s, where as carbohydrates and lipids are similar in plants & animals.  AA’s are linked by Peptide Bonds, hence the proteins are called Polypeptides (meaning many bonds)

21. Polypeptides and Amino Acids Polypeptide Peptide BondsAmino Acids Amino Acid (General Structure) H HO NCC HOH R

22. Proteins Each different protein has a different number and sequence of AA’s The sequence of AA’s determines the shape (structure) of the protein. The structure of the protein determines it’s properties (how it behaves) and therefore its function (job) in life.

23. Protein Structure There are 4 levels of Protein structure: 1.Primary structure The actual sequence of amino acids in the polypeptide

24. Protein Structure 2. Secondary Structure Hydrogen bonding between some AA’s causes the Primary polypeptide to fold or pleat in some places or to undergo coiling into helix structures in other parts of the chain.

25. Protein Structure 3. Tertiary Structure Hydrophobic R groups are attracted to each other. Hydrophilic R groups are also attracted to each other. These interactions between R groups of the amino acids cause the polypeptide chains to become folded, coiled or twisted into the proteins functional shape or conformation All protein molecules with the same sequence of amino acids will fold into the same shape. Changing 1 amino acid will alter the shape. It is the tertiary shape that determines the biological functionality.

26. Protein Structure Tertiary Structure continued.

27. Protein Structure 4. Quaternary Structure Sometimes 2 or more separately created polypeptide chains join together. 1.(eg. Heamoglobin consists of 4 polypeptide chains, joined by a variety of hydrogen bonds, ionic bonds and covalent bonds, which gives the molecule it’s overall shape).

28. Protein Structure Summary

29. Biomacromolecules Summary