1. Earth Science 25.2A : Stellar Evolution
The Birth and Evolution of Stars

2. Earth Science 25.2 : Stellar Evolution
Determining how stars are born, age and die can be difficult because the life of a star can span billions of years.
However, by studying stars of different ages astronomers have been able to piece together the life and evolution of a star.

3. Earth Science 25.2 : Stellar Evolution
The Birth of a Star:
The birthplaces of stars are dark, cool interstellar clouds.
These nebulae are made up of dust and gases.
In the Milky Way, nebulae consist of 92% hydrogen, 7% helium, and less than 1 % of the remaining heavier elements.
For some reason not fully understood by scientists, some nebulae become dense enough that they begin to contract, growing smaller yet denser as they shrink.

4. Earth Science 25.2 : Stellar Evolution
A shock wave from another nearby star may trigger this contraction.
Once this process begins to occur, gravity squeezes particles in the nebulae pulling each and every particle toward the center.
As the nebulae shrinks and grows denser in it’s center, this gravitational energy increases and is converted into heat energy.

5. Earth Science 25.2 : Stellar Evolution
Protostar Stage:
The initial contraction of gases spans a million years time.
As time passes, the temperature of this gas body slowly rises enough to radiate energy from it’s surface in the form of long-wavelength red light.
This large red object is called a protostar; a developing star that is not yet hot enough to attain nuclear fusion.

6. Earth Science 25.2 : Stellar Evolution
During the protostar stage, gravitational contraction continues: slowly at first than more rapidly.
This collapse causes the core of the protostar to heat much more intensely than the outer layer.
When the core of a protostar has reached about 10 million degrees K, pressure within it is so great that the nuclear fusion of hydrogen begins, and a star is born.

7. Earth Science 25.2 : Stellar Evolution
Heat from hydrogen fusion causes the gases to increase their motion.
This in turn causes an increase in outward gas pressure.
At some point, this outward pressure exactly balances the inward pull of gravity.
When this balance is reached, the star becomes a stable main sequence star.
A stable main-sequence star is balanced between two forces: gravity, which is trying to squeeze it into a smaller space, and gas pressure, which is trying to expand it.

8. Earth Science 25.2 : Stellar Evolution
Main Sequence Stage:
From this point on in the evolution of a main-sequence star until it’s death, the internal gas pressure struggles to offset the unyielding force of gravity.
Typically, the hydrogen fusion continues for a few billion years and provides the outward pressure required to support the star from gravitational collapse.

9. Earth Science 25.2 : Stellar Evolution
Different stars age at different rates.
Hot, massive, blue stars radiate energy at such an enormous rate that they deplete their hydrogen fuel in only a few million years.
By contrast, the least massive main-sequence stars may remain stable for hundreds of billions of years.
A yellow star, such as our sun, remains a main-sequence star for about 10 billion years.

10. Earth Science 25.2 : Stellar Evolution
An average star spends 90 percent of it’s life as a hydrogen burning main-sequence star.
Once the hydrogen fuel in the star’s core is depleted, it evolves rapidly and dies.
However, with the exception of the least massive red stars, a star can delay it’s death by fusing heavier elements and becoming a giant.

11. Earth Science 25.2 : Stellar Evolution
Red Giant Stage:
The red giant stage occurs because the zone of hydrogen fusion continually moves outward, leaving behind a helium core.
Eventually, all the hydrogen in the star’s core is consumed.
While hydrogen fusion is still occurring in the star’s outer shell, no fusion is taking place in the inner core.
Without a source of energy, the core no longer has enough pressure to support itself against the inward force of gravity and the core thus begins to contract.

12. Earth Science 25.2 : Stellar Evolution
As the core contracts, it grows hotter by converting gravitational heat into heat energy.
Some of this energy is radiated outward, increasing hydrogen fusion in the star’s outer shell. This energy in turn heats and expands the star’s outer shell.
The result is a giant body hundreds to thousands of times bigger than the original main-sequence size.

13. Earth Science 25.2 : Stellar Evolution
As the star expands, it’s surface cools, which explains the star’s reddish appearance.
During expansion, the core continues to collapse and heat until it reaches 100 million K.
At this temperature, it is hot enough to convert helium to carbon.
So a red giant consumes both helium and hydrogen to produce energy.

14. Earth Science 25.2 : Stellar Evolution
Eventually, all the usable nuclear fuel in these giants will be consumed.
The sun, for example, will spend less than a billion years as a giant.
More massive stars will pass through this stage even more rapidly.
The force of gravity will again control the star’s destiny as it squeezes the star into a much smaller, denser piece of matter.

15. Earth Science 25.2 : Stellar Evolution
Burnout and Death of a Star:
Most of the events of stellar evolution we have looked at so far are well documented. What we will look at now is based more on theory.
We do know that all stars, regardless of their size, eventually run out of fuel and collapse due to gravity.
With this in mind, let us look at the final stages of a variety of stars of different sizes and mass.

16. Earth Science 25.2 : Stellar Evolution
Death of a low-mass star:
As we see in the figure at right, stars less than one half the mass of our sun consume their fuel at a low rate and live a very long time.
Consequently, these small, cool, red stars may remain on the main sequence for up to 100 billion years.

17. Earth Science 25.2 : Stellar Evolution
Because the interior of a low-mass star never reaches high enough temperatures and pressures to fuse helium, it’s only energy source is hydrogen.
So low-mass stars never evolve into red giants.
Instead, they remain as stable main-sequence stars until they consume their hydrogen fuel and collapse into a white dwarf.

18. Earth Science 25.2 : Stellar Evolution
Death of medium-Mass Stars:
Our star, the sun, is a medium mass star. As we see in the table at right, all stars with masses similar to our sun evolve in much the same way.
During their red giant phase, sun-like stars consume hydrogen and helium fuel at a fast rate.
Once this fuel is exhausted, these stars also collapse into white dwarfs.

19. Earth Science 25.2 : Stellar Evolution
During their collapse from red giants to white dwarfs, medium-mass stars are thought to cast off their bloated outer shell, creating an expanding round cloud of gas.
The remaining hot, central white dwarf heats the gas cloud, causing it to glow.
These often beautiful gleaming spherical clouds are called planetary nebulae.

20. Earth Science 25.2 : Stellar Evolution
Death of Massive Stars:
In contrast to sun-like stars, stars with masses 4 times that of our sun have relatively short life spans.
These stars end in a brilliant explosion called a supernova.
During a supernova, a star becomes millions of times brighter than it’s prenova stage.
If one of the stars nearest to Earth produced a supernova, it would be brighter than our sun.

21. Earth Science 25.2 : Stellar Evolution
Supernovas are very rare.
None have been observed in our galaxy since the invention of the telescope, although Tycho Brahe and Galileo each recorded one about 30 years apart.
An even larger supernova was recorded in 1054 by ancient Chinese astronomers.
Today, the remnant of this great supernova is thought to be the Crab nebulae.

22. Earth Science 25.2 : Stellar Evolution
A supernova event is thought to be triggered when a massive star consumes most of it’s nuclear food.
Without a heat engine to generate the gas pressure required to maintain it’s balance, it’s immense gravitational field causes the star to collapse inward.
This implosion, or bursting inward, is huge, resulting in a shock wave that moves outward from the star’s interior.
This shock wave destroys the star and blasts the outer shell into space, generating the supernova event.

23. Earth Science 25.2 : Stellar Evolution
Click on the following link to view a short animation showing the life of our sun
Part B: continued tomorrow as 25.2B