1. Chapter 13 Food, Soil Conservation, and Pest Management

2. Land Use

3. Plantation agriculture Shifting cultivation Industrialized agriculture No agriculture Intensive traditional Nomadic herding

4. Fig. 13-6, p. 276 Natural Capital Croplands Help maintain water flow and soil infiltration Food crops Provide partial erosion protection Fiber crops Can build soil organic matter Crop genetic resources Store atmospheric carbon Provide wildlife habitat for some species Jobs Ecological Services Economic Services

5. FOOD PRODUCTION  Food production from croplands, rangelands, ocean fisheries, and aquaculture has increased dramatically.  Wheat, rice, and corn provide more than half of the world’s consumed calories.  Fish and shellfish are an important source of food for about 1 billion people mostly in Asia and in coastal areas of developing countries.

6. Industrial Food Production: High Input Monocultures  About 80% of the world’s food supply is produced by industrialized agriculture. Uses large amounts of fossil fuel energy, water, commercial fertilizers, and pesticides to produce monocultures. Uses large amounts of fossil fuel energy, water, commercial fertilizers, and pesticides to produce monocultures. Greenhouses are increasingly being used. Greenhouses are increasingly being used. Plantations are being used in tropics for cash crops such as coffee, sugarcane, bananas. Plantations are being used in tropics for cash crops such as coffee, sugarcane, bananas.

7. Industrial Food Production: High Input Monocultures  Livestock production in developed countries is industrialized: Feedlots are used to fatten up cattle before slaughter. Feedlots are used to fatten up cattle before slaughter. Most pigs and chickens live in densely populated pens or cages. Most pigs and chickens live in densely populated pens or cages. Most livestock are fed grain grown on cropland. Most livestock are fed grain grown on cropland. Systems use a lot of energy and water and produce huge amounts of animal waste. Systems use a lot of energy and water and produce huge amounts of animal waste.

8. Case Study: Industrialized Food Production in the United States  The U.S. uses industrialized agriculture to produce about 17% of the world’s grain. Relies on cheap energy to run machinery, process food, produce commercial fertilizer and pesticides. Relies on cheap energy to run machinery, process food, produce commercial fertilizer and pesticides.  About 10 units of nonrenewable fossil fuel energy are needed to put 1 unit of food energy on the table.

9. Case Study: Industrialized Food Production in the United States  Industrialized agriculture uses about 17% of all commercial energy in the U.S. and food travels an average 2,400 kilometers from farm to plate. Figure 13-7

10. Traditional Agriculture  Typically practiced in developing countries (44% of world’s people) provides 20% of world food supply  Subsistence farming Primarily uses human labor and draft animals Primarily uses human labor and draft animals Produces crops and livestock for a family’s survival Produces crops and livestock for a family’s survival  Intensive agriculture Increase inputs of human and draft labor, fertilizer and water Increase inputs of human and draft labor, fertilizer and water Higher yield per are of cultivated land Higher yield per are of cultivated land Crops and livestock to feed family and generate income. Crops and livestock to feed family and generate income.

11. Traditional Agriculture: Low Input Polyculture  Research has shown that, on average, low input polyculture produces higher yields than high-input monoculture. Figure 13-8

12. Traditional Agriculture: Low Input Polyculture  Many farmers in developing countries use low- input agriculture to grow a variety of crops on each plot of land (interplanting) through: Polyvarietal cultivation: planting several genetic varieties. Polyvarietal cultivation: planting several genetic varieties. Intercropping: two or more different crops grown at the same time in a plot. Intercropping: two or more different crops grown at the same time in a plot. Agroforestry: crops and trees are grown together. Agroforestry: crops and trees are grown together. Polyculture: different plants are planted together. Polyculture: different plants are planted together.

13. Relative Inputs in Agriculture

14. THE GREEN REVOLUTION AND ITS ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT  Since 1950, high-input agriculture has produced more crops per unit of land.  In 1967, fast growing dwarf varieties of rice and wheat were developed for tropics and subtropics. Figure 13-17

15. 1 st Green Revolution  Three steps Developing and planting monocultures of high yield crops (bred or genetically engineered. Developing and planting monocultures of high yield crops (bred or genetically engineered. Using large inputs of fertilizers, pesticides and water Using large inputs of fertilizers, pesticides and water Increasing thenumber of crops grown per year through multiple cropping Increasing thenumber of crops grown per year through multiple cropping  Dramatically increased crop yields in developed countries between 1950-70

16. 2 nd Green Revolution  Introducing fast growing dwarf rice and wheat specifically bred to grow in tropical and subtropical climates  Taking place in developing countries since 1967  Produce 2 – 5 times the yield of traditional crops  Requires substantial use of fertilizer, pesticides and water to produce increased yield.  Requires high inputs of fossil fuels

17. THE GREEN REVOLUTION AND ITS ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT  Lack of water, high costs for small farmers, and physical limits to increasing crop yields hinder expansion of the green revolution.  Since 1978 the amount of irrigated land per person has declined due to: Depletion of underground water supplies. Depletion of underground water supplies. Inefficient irrigation methods. Inefficient irrigation methods. Salt build-up. Salt build-up. Cost of irrigating crops. Cost of irrigating crops.

18. THE GREEN REVOLUTION AND ITS ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT  Modern agriculture has a greater harmful environmental impact than any human activity.  Loss of a variety of genetically different crop and livestock strains might limit raw material needed for future green and gene revolutions. In the U.S., 97% of the food plant varieties available in the 1940 no longer exist in large quantities. In the U.S., 97% of the food plant varieties available in the 1940 no longer exist in large quantities.

19. PRODUCING MORE MEAT  About half of the world’s meat is produced by livestock grazing on grass.  The other half is produced under factory-like conditions (feedlots). Densely packed livestock are fed grain or fish meal. Densely packed livestock are fed grain or fish meal.  Eating more chicken and farm-raised fish and less beef and pork reduces harmful environmental impacts of meat production.

20. Fig. 13-21, p. 289 Trade-Offs Animal Feedlots AdvantagesDisadvantages Increased meat production Need large inputs of grain, fish meal, water, and fossil fuels Higher profits Concentrate animal wastes that can pollute water Less land use Reduced overgrazing Reduced soil erosion Antibiotics can increase genetic resistance to microbes in humans Help protect biodiversity

21. Make It Messy Students will discuss the links that exist between social and food production systems.

22. How Many People can the World Support? Food Production and Population  The number of people the world can support depends mostly on their per capita consumption of grain and meat and how many children couples have. Research has shown that those living very low on the food chain or very high on the food chain do not live as long as those that live somewhere in between. Research has shown that those living very low on the food chain or very high on the food chain do not live as long as those that live somewhere in between.

23. PRODUCING MORE MEAT  Efficiency of converting grain into animal protein. Figure 13-22

24. CATCHING AND RAISING MORE FISH AND SHELLFISH  After spectacular increases, the world’s total and per capita marine and freshwater fish and shellfish catches have leveled off. Figure 13-23

25. CATCHING AND RAISING MORE FISH AND SHELLFISH  Government subsidies given to the fishing industry are a major cause of overfishing. Global fishing industry spends about $25 billion per year more than its catch is worth. Global fishing industry spends about $25 billion per year more than its catch is worth. Without subsidies many fishing fleets would have to go out of business. Without subsidies many fishing fleets would have to go out of business. Subsidies allow excess fishing with some keeping their jobs longer with making less money. Subsidies allow excess fishing with some keeping their jobs longer with making less money.

26. Aquaculture: Aquatic Feedlots  Raising large numbers of fish and shellfish in ponds and cages is world’s fastest growing type of food production.  Fish farming involves cultivating fish in a controlled environment and harvesting them in captivity.  Fish ranching involves holding anadromous species that live part of their lives in freshwater and part in saltwater. Fish are held for the first few years, released, and then harvested when they return to spawn. Fish are held for the first few years, released, and then harvested when they return to spawn.

27. Fig. 13-24, p. 292 Trade-Offs Aquaculture AdvantagesDisadvantages High efficiencyNeeds large inputs of land, feed, and water High yield in small volume of water Large waste output Destroys mangrove forests and estuaries Can reduce overharvesting of conventional fisheries Uses grain to feed some species Low fuel use Dense populations vulnerable to disease Tanks too contaminated to use after about 5 years High profits Profits not tied to price of oil

28. Fig. 13-25, p. 293 Solutions More Sustainable Aquaculture Use less fishmeal feed to reduce depletion of other fish Improve management of aquaculture wastes Reduce escape of aquaculture species into the wild Restrict location of fish farms to reduce loss of mangrove forests and estuaries Farm some aquaculture species in deeply submerged cages to protect them from wave action and predators and allow dilution of wastes into the ocean Certify sustainable forms of aquaculture

29. SOLUTIONS: MOVING TOWARD GLOBAL FOOD SECURITY  People in urban areas could save money by growing more of their food. Urban gardens provide about 15% of the world’s food supply. Urban gardens provide about 15% of the world’s food supply.  Up to 90% of the world’s food is wasted. Figure 13-26

30. SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE THROUGH SOIL CONSERVATION  Modern farm machinery can plant crops without disturbing soil (no-till and minimum tillage. Conservation-tillage farming: Conservation-tillage farming: Increases crop yield.Increases crop yield. Raises soil carbon content.Raises soil carbon content. Lowers water use.Lowers water use. Lowers pesticides.Lowers pesticides. Uses less tractor fuel.Uses less tractor fuel.

31. SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE THROUGH SOIL CONSERVATION  Terracing, contour planting, strip cropping, alley cropping, and windbreaks can reduce soil erosion. Figure 13-16

32. SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE THROUGH SOIL CONSERVATION  Fertilizers can help restore soil nutrients, but runoff of inorganic fertilizers can cause water pollution. Organic fertilizers: from plant and animal (fresh, manure, or compost) materials. Organic fertilizers: from plant and animal (fresh, manure, or compost) materials. Commercial inorganic fertilizers: Active ingredients contain nitrogen, phosphorous, and potassium and other trace nutrients. Commercial inorganic fertilizers: Active ingredients contain nitrogen, phosphorous, and potassium and other trace nutrients.

33. Solutions: Steps Toward More Sustainable Food Production  We can increase food security by slowing populations growth, sharply reducing poverty, and slowing environmental degradation of the world’s soils and croplands.

34. SOLUTIONS: SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE  Three main ways to reduce hunger and malnutrition and the harmful effects of agriculture: Slow population growth. Slow population growth. Sharply reduce poverty. Sharply reduce poverty. Develop and phase in systems of more sustainable, low input agriculture over the next few decades. Develop and phase in systems of more sustainable, low input agriculture over the next few decades.

35. Fig. 13-33, p. 302 Solutions Sustainable Organic Agriculture MoreLess High-yield polyculture Soil erosion Soil salinization Organic fertilizers Aquifer depletion Biological pest control Overgrazing Integrated pest management Overfishing Loss of biodiversity Efficient irrigation Loss of prime cropland Perennial crops Crop rotation Food waste Water-efficient crops Subsidies for unsustainable farming and fishing Soil conservation Subsidies for sustainable farming and fishing Population growth Poverty

36. Sustainable Agriculture  Results of 22 year study comparing organic and conventional farming. Figure 13-34

37. Fig. 13-34, p. 302 Solutions Organic Farming Improves soil fertility Reduces soil erosion Retains more water in soil during drought years Uses about 30% less energy per unit of yield Lowers CO 2 emissions Reduces water pollution from recycling livestock wastes Eliminates pollution from pesticides Increases biodiversity above and below ground Benefits wildlife such as birds and bats

38. Solutions: Making the Transition to More Sustainable Agriculture  More research, demonstration projects, government subsidies, and training can promote more sustainable organic agriculture. Figure 13-35

39. Fig. 13-35, p. 303 What Can You Do? Sustainable Organic Agriculture Waste less food Eat less or no meat Feed pets balanced grain foods instead of meat Use organic farming to grow some of your food Buy organic food Eat locally grown food Compost food wastes

40. FOOD SECURITY AND NUTRITION  Global food production has stayed ahead of population growth. However: One of six people in developing countries cannot grow or buy the food they need. One of six people in developing countries cannot grow or buy the food they need. Others cannot meet their basic energy needs (undernutrition / hunger) or protein and key nutrients (malnutrition). Others cannot meet their basic energy needs (undernutrition / hunger) or protein and key nutrients (malnutrition).

41. War and the Environment  Starving children collecting ants to eat in famine-stricken Sudan, Africa which has been involved in civil war since 1983. Figure 13-3

42. NUTRITION  Undernutrition Chronically undernourished 100-400 fewer kilocalories than needed to maintain body weight Chronically undernourished 100-400 fewer kilocalories than needed to maintain body weight Children suffer from:Children suffer from: Mental retardation Mental retardation Stunted growth Stunted growth Infectious diseases (measles and diarrhea) Infectious diseases (measles and diarrhea) Malnutrition Malnutrition Deficiencies of protein and other key nutrientsDeficiencies of protein and other key nutrients Marasmus – diet low in both calories and protein Marasmus – diet low in both calories and protein Kwashiokor – protein deficiency affects primarily children 1-3 years of age Kwashiokor – protein deficiency affects primarily children 1-3 years of age

43. Effects of Malnutrition Marasmus Kwashiorkor

44. FOOD SECURITY AND NUTRITION  One in three people has a deficiency of one or more vitamins and minerals, especially vitamin A, iodine (causes goiter - enlargement of thyroid gland), and iron. Figure 13-2

45. Micronutrient deficiencies  Vitamin A Blindness Blindness Premature death due to reduced resistance to infectious diseases Premature death due to reduced resistance to infectious diseases  Iron Causes fatigue Causes fatigue Increases risk of infection Increases risk of infection Increases a woman’s chance of dying in childbirth Increases a woman’s chance of dying in childbirth Reduces education efforts as developing brain needs iron Reduces education efforts as developing brain needs iron  Iodine Stunted growth Stunted growth Mental retardation Mental retardation Goiter (growth on the thyroid gland can lead to deafness) Goiter (growth on the thyroid gland can lead to deafness)

46. FOOD SECURITY AND NUTRITION  The root cause of hunger and malnutrition is poverty.  Food security means that every person in a given area has daily access to enough nutritious food to have an active and healthy life. Need large amounts of macronutrients (protein, carbohydrates, and fats). Need large amounts of macronutrients (protein, carbohydrates, and fats). Need smaller amounts of micronutrients (vitamins such as A,C, and E). Need smaller amounts of micronutrients (vitamins such as A,C, and E).

47. Connection Between Poverty and Malnutrition

48. Solutions: Reducing Childhood Deaths from Hunger and Malnutrition  There are several ways to reduce childhood deaths from nutrition-related causes: Immunize children. Immunize children. Encourage breast-feeding. Encourage breast-feeding. Prevent dehydration from diarrhea. Prevent dehydration from diarrhea. Prevent blindness from vitamin A deficiency. Prevent blindness from vitamin A deficiency. Provide family planning. Provide family planning. Increase education for women. Increase education for women.

49. Overnutrition: Eating Too Much  Overnutrition and lack of exercise can lead to reduced life quality, poor health, and premature death.  A 2005 Boston University study found that about 60% of American adults are overweight and 33% are obese (totaling 93%).  Americans spend $42 billion per year trying to lose weight.  $24 billion per year is needed to eliminate world hunger.

50. Environmental Effects of Producing Food  Biodiversity Loss Loss and degradation of habitat Loss and degradation of habitat Fish kills from pesticide runoff Fish kills from pesticide runoff Killing wild predators to protect livestock Killing wild predators to protect livestock Loss of genetic diversity by replacing wild ecosystems with monocultures Loss of genetic diversity by replacing wild ecosystems with monocultures  Soil Erosion Erosion Loss of fertility Loss of fertility Salinization Salinization Waterlogging Waterlogging Desertification Desertification  Air Pollution Greenhouse gas emissions Greenhouse gas emissions Air pollutants from fossil fuels Air pollutants from fossil fuels Pollution from pesticide sprays Pollution from pesticide sprays

51. Environmental effects of Producing Food  Water Aquifer depletion Aquifer depletion Increased runoff and flooding Increased runoff and flooding Sediment pollution Sediment pollution Fish kills from pesticides Fish kills from pesticides Surface and groundwater pollution from pesticides and fertilizers Surface and groundwater pollution from pesticides and fertilizers Overfertilization due to nitrates from fertilizers and livestock wastes Overfertilization due to nitrates from fertilizers and livestock wastes  Human Health Nitrates in drinking water Nitrates in drinking water Pesticide residues in drinking water, food and air Pesticide residues in drinking water, food and air Contamination of drinking water with diseases from livestock waste Contamination of drinking water with diseases from livestock waste Bacterial contamination of meat Bacterial contamination of meat

52. Government Policies and Food Production  Governments use three main approaches to influence food production: Control prices to keep prices artificially low. Control prices to keep prices artificially low. Provide subsidies to keep farmers in business. Provide subsidies to keep farmers in business. Let the marketplace decide rather than implementing price controls. Let the marketplace decide rather than implementing price controls.