1. EVERYTHING PSYCHOLOGICAL IS ALSO BIOLOGICAL.
THE BRAIN: the Neuron/brain cell
EVERYTHING PSYCHOLOGICAL IS ALSO BIOLOGICAL.
 To understand things like sleep and dreams, depression and schizophrenia, hunger and sex, stress and disease, we must understand human BIOLOGY.
I. The foundation: Neuron/nerve cells.
A billion +, throughout the body
B. they ZAP - they communicate, and send ELECTRICAL messages.
C. they ZAP - send CHEMICAL messages
D. Every mood/urge/thought you have is zapped, and it is chemical
THE BRAIN: the Neuron/brain cell
EVERYTHING PSYCHOLOGICAL IS ALSO BIOLOGICAL.
To understand things like sleep and dreams, depression and schizophrenia, hunger and sex, stress and disease, we must understand human BIOLOGY.
I. The foundation: Neuron/nerve cells.
A. 10 billion +, throughout the body
B. they ZAP - they communicate, and send ELECTRICAL messages.
C. the ZAPS send CHEMICAL messages
D. Every mood/urge/thought you have is zapped, and it is chemical
II. Parts of the neuron/why impt.
A. Nucleus, or cell body
contains the blueprint for YOU - this is why DNA testing can identify you from one flake of skin - all it takes is ONE neuron.
B. Axon/Myelin sheath
when chemicals penetrate here, things happen to other neurons, your muscles, your skin - or they don't. BAL's, multiple sclerosis, and why turkey makes you sleepy - answers are here!
C. Axon terminals/synaptic vesicles. Located here are the chemicals called neurotransmitters -if you want to go to sleep, better hope the right ones are released.
D. the Synaptic Gap - space between neurons. When neurotransmitters are floating between cells, things happen.
D. Dendrites - These grabby guys hold the receptors in their fingertips - Dendrites can be blocked, or mimicked - Prozac works here to help depressed people feel better.
E. Neurotransmitters - the natural chemicals that regulate behavior
F. Hormones - other natural chemicals, from the endocrine system, that work in conjunction with this whole system
III. What this has to do with depression
A. When people feel sad, our neurons zap chemicals that go with "sad". "Sad" is a feeling - all feelings are created by chemical zapping in your brain. Inappropriate sadness/hopelessness can be a CHEMICAL problem, and therefore can have a CHEMICAL solution
B. How antidepressants work - SSRI's - Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (take rest of notes on board)

2. Neural and Hormonal Systems
Will Explain Why We FEEL……
Nervous
Strong
Sick
Pain

3. It all Starts with the Neuron

4. Neuron Structure
Neurons do NOT touch each other- the space in between is called synaptic cleft.

5. Neural Bases of Psychology: The Structure of a Neuron

7. Dendrite  Fine hair-like extensions on the end of a neuron.
Function: receive incoming stimuli.
Cell Body or Soma  The control center of the neuron.
Function: Directs impulses from the dendrites to the axon.
Nucleus  Control center of the Soma.
Function: Tells the soma what to do.
Axon Pathway for the nerve impulse (electrical message) from the soma to the opposite end of the neuron.
Myelin Sheath  An insulating layer around an axon. Made up of Schwann cells.
Nodes of Ranvier  Gaps between schwann cells.
Function: to keep charge going through the relatively long axon – without these spaces, the charge might lose its intensity before reaching the end of the cell

8. How Do Neurons Operate? Neuron at Rest  Resting Potential
Occurs when the neuron is at rest.
A condition where the outside of the membrane is positively(+) charged compared to the inside which is negatively(-) charged.
Neuron is said to be polarized.

9. Neural Bases of Psychology: Neural Communication
Within a neuron, communication occurs through an action potential (neural impulse that carries information along the axon of a neuron).

10. Steps of Action Potential
Dendrites receive neurotransmitter from another neuron across the synapse.
Reached its threshold- then fires based on the all-or-none response.
Opens up a portal in axon, and lets in positive ions (Sodium) which mix with negative ions (Potassium) that is already inside the axon (thus Neurons at rest have a slightly negative charge).
The mixing of + and – ions causes an electrical charge that opens up the next portal (letting in more K) while closing the original portal.
Process continues down axon to the axon terminal.
Terminal buttons turns electrical charge into chemical (neurotransmitter) and shoots message to next neuron across the synapse.

11. Action Potential

12. The All-or None Response
The idea that either the neuron fires or it does not- no part way firing.
Like a gun

13. How Neurons Communicate

15. Which sentence most closely describes neural transmissions?
A. an electric charge is created in the neuron, the charge travels down the cell, and chemicals are released that cross the synapse to the next cell
B. a chemical change occurs within the cell, the change causes an electric charge to be produced and the charge jumps the gap between the nerve cells.
C. the electric charge produced chemically inside a group of neurons causes chemical changes in surrounding cells

16. Neurotransmitters
Chemical messengers released by terminal buttons through the synapse.
We should know at least 6 types and what they do.

17. Acetylcholine Its function is motor movement and maybe memory.
Too much and you will….
Not enough and you will….
Lack of ACH has been linked to Alzheimer’s disease.

18. Dopamine Its function is motor movement and alertness.
Lack of dopamine is associated with Parkinson’s disease.
Overabundance is associated with schizophrenia.

19. Serotonin Function deals with mood control.
Lack of serotonin has been linked to depression.

20. Endorphins Function deals with pain control.
We become addicted to endorphin causing feelings.

21. What are agonists and antagonists?
They are drugs
Agonists mimic neurotransmitters.
Example: Nicotine is an ACh agonist
Antagonists block neurotransmitters:
Example: curare – a poison - is an antagonist for ACh (paralyzes you)

22. Agonists and Antagonists

23. Examples: A person smokes a cigarette
Examples: A person smokes a cigarette. Nicotine in the blood causes an EXCITATORY action potential for acetylcholine to fire. The synaptic vesicles release the neurotransmitter acetylcholine into the synapse, and the person feels more alert
(their lungs are another matter altogether).

24. Examples: A person is given morphine, an opiate, at the hospital for pain from an operation. The morphine is administered into the vein, which means it goes directly into the blood. The morphine tips the +- balance, and this causes an inhibitory action potential to fire which causes the release of the neurotransmitters called endorphins. When the endorphins float across the synapse, the person doesn’t feel the pain from the surgery.

25. Examples: A person takes an allergy pill for seasonal allergies
Examples: A person takes an allergy pill for seasonal allergies. The allergy pill goes into the bloodstream, and tips the +- balance. This causes an inhibitory action potential to fire for the neurotransmitter GABA. When GABA floats across the synapse, the person’s allergy symptoms are controlled. However, they are also sleepy and want to go to sleep in a hammock on a calm beach somewhere, because GABA is inhibitory and slows/calms everything down.

26. You eat some bad Chinese food and feel you are losing control of your muscles. The bacteria you ingested from the food most likely interferes with the use of:
A. serotonin
B. insulin
C. acetylcholine
D. thorazine
E. adrenaline

27. What is reuptake?
The mopping up of excess neurotransmitter.

28. How does Prozac work?
It is a serotonin reuptake inhibitor.

29. How does Cocaine work?
The white cocaine blocks the reuptake of dopamine.

30. Types of Neurons There are 3 types of neurons.
Sensory Neurons  Neurons located near receptor organs (skin, eyes, ears).
Function: receive incoming stimuli from the environment.
Motor Neurons  Neurons located near effectors (muscles and glands)
Function: Carry impulses to effectors to initiate a response.
Interneurons  Neurons that relay messages between other neurons such as sensory and motor neurons. (found most often in Brain and Spinal chord).

31. Types of Neurons

32. Sensory Neurons (Afferent Neurons)
Take information from the senses to the brain.

33. Motor Neurons (Efferent Neurons)
Take information from brain to the rest of the body.

34. Central Nervous System
Made up of Brain and Spinal Chord
Made up of billions of neurons, sending electrical and chemical messages.
CNS
Spinal chord
brain

35. ………is a communication system, much like Curtis High School.
Entire Nervous System
………is a communication system, much like Curtis High School.

36. Administration/Support People Classes/Teachers/Students-
Administration/Support People
Classes/Teachers/Students

37. Peripheral Nervous System
The Nervous System
This is just like the Nervous System – it’s one big organization, divided into 1) the Central Nervous System, and 2) the Peripheral Nervous System
Peripheral Nervous System
Central Nervous System
Administration/Support People
Classes/Teachers/Students

38. These two systems are further divided into more sections:
The Nervous System
Central Nervous System
Peripheral Nervous System
Administration/Support People
Classes/Teachers/
Students
These two systems are further divided into more sections:
Autonomic Division/
Involuntary
Somatic Division/
Voluntary
Spinal Chord
BRAIN
Support personnel
administration
Required classes
Electives

39. Peripheral Nervous System
CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

40. The sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body.

41. Divisions of the Peripheral Nervous System
Somatic and Autonomic
Somatic/Skeletal/ Autonomic/
Voluntary Involuntary
SENSORY NERVES/
AFFERENT
MOTORNERVES/
EFFERENT
Parasympathetic
Sympathetic

42. Divisions of the Peripheral Nervous System - illustrated
Somatic and Autonomic
Somatic/Skeletal/ Autonomic/
Voluntary Involuntary
SENSORYNERVES/
AFFERENT
MOTORNERVES/
EFFERENT
Parasympathetic
Sympathetic

44. Sympathetic NS Mobilizes the body during extreme conditions
Considered “fight or flight” system
Involves E activities: emergency, excitement, exercise, and embarassment
If you are threatened:
Heart rate and breathing increase
Pupils dilate
Skin cold and sweaty
Bronchioles dilate
Liver releases glucose

46. The PSNS performs maintenance activities and conserves body energy
If the sympathetic stimulates, the parasympathetic slows the system back down (think of PARAchute)
Provides homeostasis homeo = same Homeostasis means same state you were in before you saw the dog and the snake!

47. Think how the right
side is different from
the left side.

48. A Simple Reflex

49. The Endocrine System A system of glands that secrete hormones.
Similar to nervous system, except hormones work a lot slower than neurotransmitters.
Hormones
Neurotransmitters

50. Endocrine system
The Pituitary gland – regulates growth, also releases a hormone called ACTH under PROLONGED stress, linked to repressed immune systems.

51. Endocrine system
Adrenal glands (adrenal cortex and the adrenal medulla) – the adrenal medulla, the inner part of the adrenal gland, releases stress hormones, epinephrine/adrenaline – in response to short-term stress.

52. Endocrine system
Thyroid glands release hormones that control metabolic rate/related to food intake (these mice could also have problems in the hypothalamus)

53. Endocrine system
Pancreas – releases insulin – regulates blood sugar/glucose levels.
Can become diabetic/problems with insulin.

54. Endocrine system
Gonads – ovaries in women, testes in men. Hormones produced include estrogen/progesterone (more in female), testosterone/androgens (more in male).

55. Pineal gland – regulates sleep/wake cycles
Endocrine system - 3
Pineal gland – regulates sleep/wake cycles

56. The amygdala determines what is emotionally important, and a poisonous snake hissing in your path is going to be given top priority.
To make sure we pay attention, the amygdala also helps us lay down an emotional memory of the snake. The neighboring hippocampus, responsible for processing memories for long-term storage, is activated and told by the amygdala to never forget the snake! Learned fear responses enhance our survival chances when the threat is real. However, this process has also been implicated in a number of anxiety disorders.
In the face of a threat, sensory input from the cortex passes through the AMYGDALA before it reaches the hypothalamus for further processing. Besides sending the signal on to the hypothalamus for the appropriate stress response, the amygdala also sends messages back UP to the cortex and other regions, ordering them to pay attention because this is vital to survival. The amygdala determines what is emotionally important, and a poisonous snake hissing in your path is going to be given top priority.
To make sure we pay attention, the amygdala also helps us lay down an emotional memory of the snake. The neighboring hippocampus, responsible for processing memories for long-term storage, is activated and told by the amygdala to never forget the snake! So the next time we see something remotely resembling the snake that once threatened us, our entire stress system is geared and ready to go.
When a dog scared us once during childhood, the amygdala decided this was an event to remember. Besides alerting the hypothalamus, the amygdala also decided that "dogs" posed a potential future threat. So it ordered the hippocampus to store a permanent emotional memory of the fear of dogs. When we meet another dog down the road, the amygdala and the hippocampus quickly access this learned fear response, even though other dogs may be harmless. Learned fear responses enhance our survival chances when the threat is real. However, this process has also been implicated in a number of anxiety disorders.

57. The fight-or-flight response
Stimuli comes from two areas to start things off – either the peripheral nerves (sensory neurons) or the brain – to activate the stress response system of the body.
ONE: Environmental stimuli that cause pain, an allergic reaction, or an internal stimulus caused by a fall in blood pressure. The midbrain and the thalamus relay sensory info to the hypothalamus, and to the cerebral cortex, for processing.
TWO: Fear or anxiety, real or imagined, may occur that causes the brain to go into action. In this case, messages to the hypothalamus are relayed from the upper brain structures – the cerebral cortex, the amygdala, etc.
From sensory nerves to hypothalamus
From brain to hypothalamus

58. STRESS – HOW SYSTEM WORKS

59. When our nervous system decides there is a threat, the system goes into action. The “fight or flight” response has been activated.

60. The hypothalamus signals the pituitary to contact the endocrine system, and tell the ADRENAL GLANDS to do their thing.
PITUITARY
hypothalamus
Pituitary gland

61. the ADRENAL GLANDS, located on top of the stomach, flood stress hormones into the blood.
Epinephrine/Adrenaline - (know both names) Acts on cardiovascular system
Norepinephrine – strengthens muscles and senses
And………

62. CORTISOL the ADRENAL GLANDS, flood stress hormones into the blood.
Esp. under long-term stress. CORTISOL helps our brain process glucose more efficiently.
Also SUPPRESSES action of immune system.
Glucose – brain’s fuel.

63. General Adaptation Syndrome
A theory about how the body and brain PHYSICALLY process stress – 3 steps:
ALARM
RESISTANCE
EXHAUSTION
So………….. First, we do
fight-or-flight.
Then, we release cortisol.
Then, over time everything
breaks down – mental and physical.

64. Don’t forget to write your answers on a separate piece of paper to grade when you’re done!
1. A neuron without terminal buttons would be unable to
a) receive information from neighboring neurons
b) generate an action potential
c) direct the synthesis of neurotransmitters
d) secrete neurotransmitters

65. 2. Paul Broca found that the loss of the ability to speak intelligibly is associated with damage to a region of the brain in the
a) left frontal lobe
b) thalamus
c) left temporal lobe
d) right parietal lobe

66. 3. Scientists are able to see changes in the brain as it processes information by means of
a) lesioning
b) autopsy
c) CT
d) PET

67. 4. The simplest behaviors we carry on
a) are learned when we are infants
b) do not involve the central nervous system
c) are called instincts
d) include sneezing and blinking

68. 5. Of the following, the effect of the adrenalin on the body is most similar to the effect of the
a) cerebellum
b) parathyroids
c) somatic nervous system
d) sympathetic nervous system

69. 6. Mr. Jenkins’ suffered a “stroke” as a result of a brain injury
6. Mr. Jenkins’ suffered a “stroke” as a result of a brain injury. Although he can still move the fingers on his right hand, he has lost sensation in these parts. Of the following, the site of damage to his brain is most likely in the
a) right frontal lobe
b) right temporal lobe
c) left frontal lobe
d) left parietal lobe

70. 7. Of the following, which are located exclusively in the central nervous system?
a) afferent neurons
b) interneurons
c) efferent neurons
d) glial cells

71. 8. Which of the following glands interact(s) most directly with all of the others to help regulate body processes?
a) pituitary
b) adrenals
c) parathyroids
d) ovaries

72. 9. Gunshot wounds, tumors, and strokes all result in
a) infections
b) significant loss of function
c) lesions
d) pain

73. 10. Which of the following must be males?
a) dizygotic twins
b) monozygotic twins
c) down syndrome children
d) Klinefelter’s syndrome children

74. 11. When you are walking, the brain sends messages to the skeletal muscles in the legs by way of
a) efferent fibers
b) sensory fibers
c) afferent fibers
d) central fibers

75. 12. The hindbrain structure involved with sleep and arousal is the
a) hypothalamus
b) cerebrum
c) thalamus
d) pons

76. 13. The basic parts of a neuron are
a) vesicles, terminal buttons, synapses
b) cell body, axon, dendrites
c) myelin, nodes, axon terminals
d) hindbrain, midbrain, forebrain

77. 14. Branches are to trees as _______ are to neurons
a) axons
b) cell bodies
c) dendrites
d) nuclei

78. 15. Determining the location of specific genes on specific chromosomes is referred to as
a) genetic mapping
b) phenomapping
c) chromosomal atlasing
d) genome projection

79. Chapter 3 Answer Key 1. D 2. A 3. D 4. D 5. D 6. D 7. B 8. A 9. C