1. Module 15 Motivation

2. Theories of Motivation Instinct Theory –Explains behaviors of animals Drive-Reduction Theory –Explains actions to meet biological/physiological needs Incentive Theory –Explains that we may do things to obtain external rewards Cognitive Theory –Explains that we may do things to satisfy personal beliefs or to meet personal goals

3. Instinct Theory Instinct –Innate tendencies or biological forces that determine behavior Fixed action pattern –Innate biological force that predisposes an organism to behave in a fixed way in the presence of a specific environmental condition Ethologists –Observe how animals use fixed action patterns in adapting to their natural environments –Lorenz found that soon after birth birds usually become attached to, or imprinted on, the first moving object they encounter and interact with the object as if it was a parent

4. Drive-Reduction Theory Need results in a drive –Need is a biological state in which the organism lacks something essential for survival (e.g., food, water, O2) –Drive is a state of tension that motivates the organism to return to a state of homeostasis (i.e., a more balanced state)

5. Drive-Reduction Theory Example: –Not eating for a period of time causes a need for food, which produces a drive. The drive energizes the person to raid the refrigerator.

6. Incentive Theory Incentive –Environmental factor that motivates our behaviors –Examples: grades praise money college degree

7. Cognitive Theory Extrinsic vs. Intrinsic Motivation Extrinsic motivation –Engaging in certain activities/behaviors that either reduce biological needs or help us to obtain incentives/ external rewards Intrinsic motivation –Engaging in certain activities/behaviors because the behaviors themselves are personally rewarding OR because engaging in these activities fulfill our beliefs/expectations

8. Biological & Social Needs Biological needs –Physiological requirements that are critical to our survival and physical well-being –Examples: food water sleep avoidance of pain Social needs –Needs that are acquired through learning and experience –Examples: achievement motive affiliative motive nurturance motive autonomy motive

9. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs A 5-level hierarchy where biological needs are at the bottom & social needs are at the top Level 1- Physiological needs –Food, water, sex, sleep Level 2 – Safety needs –Protection from harm Level 3 – Love & Belonging needs –Affiliation with others & acceptance by others

10. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs (cont.) Level 4 – Esteem needs –Achievement, competency, gaining approval & recognition Level 5 – Self-actualization –Fulfillment of one’s unique potential

11. Optimal Weight & Overweight Optimal/Ideal Weight –An almost perfect balance between how much food an organism eats & how much it needs to meet its body’s energy needs Calorie –Measure of how much energy food contains Overweight –Person is 20% over their ideal weight Insurance Weights Shape.com U.S. Army

12. 3 Hunger Factors Biological hunger factors –Come from physiological changes in blood chemistry & signals from digestive organs that provide feedback to the brain, which triggers us to stop eating Psychosocial hunger factors –Come from learned associations between food & other stimuli snacking while watching TV Socio-cultural pressures to be thin Genetic hunger factors –Come from inherited instructions found in our genes

13. Biological Hunger Factors Peripheral Cues –Come from changes in blood chemistry or signals from digestive organs Central Cues –Come from the activity of chemicals and neurotransmitters in different areas of the brain

14. 4 Genetic Hunger Factors Number of fat cells –People who inherit a larger number of fat cells have the ability to store more fat & are more likely to be fatter than average Metabolic rates –How efficiently our bodies break down food into energy & how quickly our bodies burn the fuel Set Point –A certain level of body fat that our bodies try to keep constant throughout our lives Weight-regulating genes –Play a role in influencing appetite, metabolism, & hormone secretions

15. Psychosocial Hunger Factors Learned Associations –Eating because it is lunchtime, not because you are hungry Social-Cultural Influences –The government of the Czech Republic subsidized cheap fatty sausage and dairy products in the 1970s; it now has the world’s highest death rates from heart disease Personality Traits –Some traits are associated with eating problems: oversensitive to rejection excessively concerned about approval from others high personal standards for achievement

16. 3 Sex Factors Genetic Sex Factors –Include the following: inherited instructions for the development of sexual organs secretion of sex hormones wiring of neural circuits that control sexual reflexes Biological Sex Factors –Include the following: action of sex hormones involved in secondary sex characteristics sexual motivation development of ova & sperm

17. 3 Sex Factors cont. Psychological Sex Factors –Play a role in developing the following: a sexual or gender identity gender role gender orientation enjoyment of sexual activities

18. Biological Sex Factors Sex Hormones –Chemicals secreted by glands, circulate in the bloodstream to influence the brain, body organs, & behaviors Major male hormones = androgens Major female hormones = estrogens

19. Psychological Influences on Sexual Behavior Gender Identity –Individual’s subjective experience & feelings of being either male or female Gender Roles –Traditional or stereotypic behaviors, attitudes, and personality traits that society designates as masculine or feminine Sexual Orientation –Homosexual Orientation pattern of sexual arousal by people of the same sex –Bisexual Orientation pattern of sexual arousal by people of both sexes –Heterosexual Orientation pattern of sexual arousal by people of the opposite sex

20. Homosexuality Statistics –1-3% of American males –1.4% of American females Genetic/Biological Factors –Concordance Rates from Twin Studies Identical Twins: 48-65% Fraternal Twins: 26-30% Adopted brothers/sisters: 6-11% Psychological Factors –A tendency to develop a homosexual orientation was found among young boys who: preferred female playmates & girls’ toys avoided rough & tumble play AND engaged in wearing girls’ clothing

21. Sexual Response, Problems & Treatments 2 Categories of sexual problems –Paraphilias repetitive or preferred sexual fantasies involving non-human objects –Sexual dysfunction problems of sexual arousal or orgasm that interfere with adequate functioning during sexual behavior Example: premature or rapid ejaculation, inhibited female orgasm

22. Sexual Response, Problems & Treatments Finding the Cause –Organic Factors medical conditions, drug, or medication problems that lead to sexual difficulties –Psychological Factors performance anxiety, sexual trauma, guilt or failure to communicate

23. AIDS: Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome In 1999, there were about 34 million people worldwide infected with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) HIV + –Presence of HIV antibodies AIDS –Individual is HIV positive & T-cell level is less than 200 per cubic ml of blood or has developed one or more of 26 specified illnesses

24. AIDS: Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome

25. Female Circumcision What Is it? –Cutting away the female’s external genitalia, sewing together the remaining edges, & leaving only a small opening for urination and menstruation What Is Its Purpose? –Common ritual to physically mark young girls and increase their chances for future marriage –Usually occurs between the ages of 4 and 10 Are there complications? –Infections, severe pain, bleeding, & hemorrhaging can lead to shock and death Is there a solution? –U.N. health organizations have endorsed anti- circumcision laws, but such laws would not eliminate the strong sociocultural tradition that supports this practice

26. Need for Achievement Desire to set challenging goals & to persist in pursuing those goals despite obstacles, frustrations, & setbacks Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) –Personality test used to measure need for achievement

27. Fear of Failure People who are motivated to avoid failure by choosing easy, non- challenging tasks where failure is less likely to occur Self-handicapping –Making up excuses to explain failure outcomes

28. Underachievers Individuals who score high on tests of ability/intelligence, but do not perform as well as their scores would predict Characteristics –Poor self-concept –Low self-esteem –Poor peer relations –Shy –Lack of persistence

29. Eating Disorders Anorexia Nervosa –Academy for Eating DisordersAcademy for Eating Disorders Bulimia Nervosa

30. Symptoms of an Eating Disorder Anorexia/Bulimia Dramatic weight loss in a relatively short period of time. Wearing big or baggy clothes or dressing in layers to hide body shape and/or weight loss. Obsession with weight and complaining of weight problems (even if "average" weight or thin). Obsession with calories and fat content of foods. Obsession with continuous exercise. Frequent trips to the bathroom immediately following meals (sometimes accompanied with water running in the bathroom for a long period of time to hide the sound of vomiting).

31. Symptoms of an Eating Disorder Visible food restriction and self-starvation. Visible bingeing and/or purging. Use or hiding use of diet pills, laxatives, ipecac syrup (can cause immediate death!) or enemas. Isolation. Fear of eating around and with others. Unusual Food rituals such as shifting the food around on the plate to look eaten; cutting food into tiny pieces; making sure the fork avoids contact with the lips (using teeth to scrap food off the fork or spoon); chewing food and spitting it out, but not swallowing; dropping food into napkin on lap to later throw away. Hiding food in strange places (closets, cabinets, suitcases, under the bed) to avoid eating (Anorexia) or to eat at a later time (Bulimia).

32. Symptoms of an Eating Disorder Flushing uneaten food down the toilet (can cause sewage problems). Vague or secretive eating patterns. Keeping a "food diary" or lists that consists of food and/or behaviors (ie., purging, restricting, calories consumed, exercise, etc.) Pre-occupied thoughts of food, weight and cooking. Visiting websites that promote unhealthy ways to lose weight.Visiting websites that promote unhealthy ways to lose weight Reading books about weight loss and eating disorders. Self-defeating statements after food consumption. Hair loss. Pale or "grey" appearance to the skin. Dizziness and headaches. Frequent soar throats and/or swollen glands.

33. Symptoms of an Eating Disorder Low self-esteem. Feeling worthless. Often putting themselves down and complaining of being "too stupid" or "too fat" and saying they don't matter. Need for acceptance and approval from others. Complaints of often feeling cold. Low blood pressure. Loss of menstrual cycle. Constipation or incontinence. Bruised or calluses knuckles; bloodshot or bleeding in the eyes; light bruising under the eyes and on the cheeks. Perfectionist personality. Loss of sexual desire or promiscuous relations. Mood swings. Depression. Fatigue. Insomnia. Poor sleeping habits

34. Characteristics of Anorexia Nervosa Refusing to eat Body weight is less than 85% of expected body weight Intense fear of weight gain Missing at least 3 consecutive menstrual cycles

35. Characteristics of Bulimia Nervosa Minimum of 2 binge-eating episodes per week for at least 3 months Fear of not being able to stop eating Regularly engaging in compensatory behaviors such as vomiting, use of laxatives, dieting, fasting Excessive concern about body shape & weight

36. Treatment for Eating Disorders Anorexia –In-hospital treatment focusing on gaining weight Bulimia –Psychotherapy –Antidepressant medication