1. Observation KNR 279 Stumbo, 2002

2. Observation as Assessment Therapist observes client’s behaviors Directly Indirectly Primary reason is to record behavior  Not perceptions/thoughts/feelings/motives like in interview  Looks at behavior in as real life situations as possible Typically uses recording systems to shorten time recording observations Advantages? Disadvantages?

3. ADVANTAGES Record behaviors that occur naturally in the environment Generalize behaviors to community Can be used with children or others with verbal or thought processing problems

4. DISADVANTAGES Cost in staff time Fitting observer unobtrusively into setting Potential subjectivity or bias of observer Determining meaningful behaviors to observe Inability to determine meaning

5. Systematic Observation Differs from casual observation Has a specific purpose  Collect data about clients Targets certain behaviors Records behaviors systematically Has concerns of reliability & validity

6. USE SYSTEMATIC OBSERVATION TO: Document typical client performance or behavior Document unusual behavior Confirm results of another assessment Triangulation Compare clients’ behaviors

7. Steps to Developing Systematic Observations Determine sample behavior that is important to observe Determine procedures for collecting, organizing, & analyzing data  Who, where, for how long, under what circumstances, how many occasions  Record behavior immediately to minimize dependence on memory & preserve detail of behavior Determine conditions under which behavior will be observed  Natural (e.g., community outing) or contrived  Obtrusive or unobtrusive  Mechanical (e.g., videotape) or human

8. Steps to Developing Systematic Observations Determine data collection instrument  Recording methods  Recording techniques  Pilot test  Reliability  Validity  Protocol Train staff as observers

9. OBSERVATIONAL RECORDING METHODS Checklists Rating scales Anecdotal records Critical incident reports

10. CHECKLISTS Record if present or absent Useful to assess mastery of concrete learning tasks Leave little room for interpretations Easy to administer, score, interpret Inter-rater reliability tends to be high Difficult to define behaviors

11. RATING SCALE Similar to checklists, but can indicate degree Fairly easy to administer and score if well- constructed Hard to construct Personal biases enter into rating Between 4-6 points should be provided

12. ANECDOTAL RECORDS Provide snapshots of actual behavior in natural situations that are significant indicator of total behavior Allows recording of environment, antecedents, and consequences of behaviors Allow recording in non-standardized form Can be time consuming Hard to be objective

13. ANECDOTAL RECORDS cont. Difficulty in deciding level of detail to record Inconsistent wording used Difficulty collating and analyzing Determine in advance what to observe, but be alert for unusual behavior Develop procedures for coding Train observers

14. Critical Incident Reports Differ from anecdotal records Used to record unusual situations/behaviors Recording antecedents, behavior, and consequences is required Factual information kept separate from interpretation Often used in SRAs for behavior management plans  See Stumbo, 2002, p. 229

15. OBSERVATION RECORDING TECHNIQUES Frequency/tally Duration Interval Instantaneous time sampling

16. Frequency/Tally Records number of times a behavior occurs Behavior needs to be clearly defined Need to determine if behaviors are significant enough to observe Can use if observe more than one person at a time  See Stumbo, 2002, p. 230

17. Duration Used when length of behavior is important Stop watch can be used Behaviors must be clearly defined & observable for a period of time  See Stumbo, 2002, p. 231

18. Interval Focuses on frequency and duration of behaviors Determine size of intervals on basis of how often the behavior occurs If behavior occurs in interval, mark is recorded  Stumbo, 2002, p. 232

19. Instantaneous Time Sampling Used when observer enters & exits observation area periodically Observer does not have time for lengthy observation Many individuals can be observed at once Patterns of behavior is important Look for absence or presence of behavior  See Stumbo, 2002, p. 233