2. Ch 6 – Atmospheric Moisture

3. Introduction Introduction –In Chapter 1, we learned that water vapor is a variable gas, occupying only a small percentage of the volume of the gases in the atmosphere. –Although water vapor is around us in only small quantities, it has major consequences, not the least of which include icing, thunderstorms, freezing rain, downbursts, whiteouts, frost, and lightning (Lester, 2006).

4. Ch 6 – Atmospheric Moisture Introduction Introduction –In this chapter, we look at the basics of atmospheric moisture, a term which is used here to imply the presence of H2O in any one or all of its states: water vapor, water, or ice. –We examine the transformation between states and the importance of air temperature in the transformation process. –When you complete this chapter, you will understand the causes and effects of state changes, how clouds form and dissipate, and how precipitation is produced (Lester, 2006).

5. Ch 6 – Atmospheric Moisture Introduction Introduction –You will also know how clouds and precipitation are classified and observed (Lester, 2006).

6. Ch 6 – Atmospheric Moisture Section A – Moisture Characteristics Section A – Moisture Characteristics –State Changes –Vapor Pressure –Relative Humidity –Dewpoint Temperature

7. Ch 6 – Atmospheric Moisture Section B – Clouds Section B – Clouds –Cloud Formation Water Vapor Water Vapor Condensation Nuclei Condensation Nuclei Cooling Cooling Latent Heat and Stability Latent Heat and Stability –Cloud and Visibility Observations Standard Cloud Observations Standard Cloud Observations Visibility Visibility Cloud Type Cloud Type Other Useful Cloud Observations Other Useful Cloud Observations

8. Ch 6 – Atmospheric Moisture Section C – Precipitation Section C – Precipitation –Precipitation Causes –Precipitation Characteristics Types Types Intensity and Amount Intensity and Amount –METAR –Hydrologic Cycle

9. Ch 6 – Atmospheric Moisture Section A: Moisture Characteristics Section A: Moisture Characteristics –State Changes Water vapor – is a colorless, odorless, tastless gas in which the molecules are free to move about, as in any gas Water vapor – is a colorless, odorless, tastless gas in which the molecules are free to move about, as in any gas Water – in the liquid state (water), molecules are restricted in their movements in comparison to water vapor at the same temperature Water – in the liquid state (water), molecules are restricted in their movements in comparison to water vapor at the same temperature Ice – as a solid ice, the molecular structure is even more rigid and the freedom of movement is greatly restricted Ice – as a solid ice, the molecular structure is even more rigid and the freedom of movement is greatly restricted

11. Ch 6 – Atmospheric Moisture Change of state – refers to the transition from one form of H2O to another Change of state – refers to the transition from one form of H2O to another

12. Ch 6 – Atmospheric Moisture ***The processes by which water vapor is added to unsaturated air are evaporation and sublimation ***The processes by which water vapor is added to unsaturated air are evaporation and sublimation

13. Ch 6 – Atmospheric Moisture Change of state – refers to the transition from one form of H2O to another Change of state – refers to the transition from one form of H2O to another –Melting – ice to water –Evaporation – water to vapor –Sublimation – ice directly to vapor without water as an intermediate state; figure 6-1 –Condensation – vapor to water –Freezing – water to ice –Deposition – vapor directly to ice without water as an intermediate state –Latent heat – the amount of heat energy that is absorbed or released when H2O changes from one state to another –Sensible heat – heat that can be felt and measured when the molecules pass to lower energy states

14. Ch 6 – Atmospheric Moisture Vapor Pressure Vapor Pressure –Partial pressure – in the mixture of atmospheric gases, each individual gas exerts a partial pressureVapor pressure (VP) – the partial pressure exerted by water vapor (H2O in gaseous form) –Saturation – occurs when the same amount of molecules are leaving a water surface as are returning –Saturation vapor pressure (SVP) – figure 6-2; the vapor pressure exerted by the molecules of water vapor in this equilibrium condition

16. Ch 6 – Atmospheric Moisture ***The amount of water vapor needed to saturate the air largely depends on air temperature ***The amount of water vapor needed to saturate the air largely depends on air temperature

17. Ch 6 – Atmospheric Moisture Boiling – occurs when SVP equals the total air pressure Boiling – occurs when SVP equals the total air pressure

18. Ch 6 – Atmospheric Moisture Relative Humidity – it is often useful to determine how close the atmosphere is to saturation Relative Humidity – it is often useful to determine how close the atmosphere is to saturation –this information can help you anticipate the formation of clouds or fog –this is done by measuring the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere in terms of actual VP and then estimating SVP from a temperature measurement; figure 6-3 –the degree of saturation is then computed by taking the ratio of VP and SVP and multiplying it by 100 –the result is called relative humidity –it expresses the amount of water vapor actually in the air as a percentage of the amount required for saturation RH (%) = (VP/SVP) x 100 RH (%) = (VP/SVP) x 100

19. Ch 6 – Atmospheric Moisture Dewpoint Temperature Dewpoint Temperature –Dewpoint – the temperature at which condensation first occurs when air is cooled at a constant pressure without adding or removing water vapor dew point temperature is always less than the air temperature, with one exception dew point temperature is always less than the air temperature, with one exception –when the air is saturated (RH = 100%), the temperature and dew point are equal

20. Ch 6 – Atmospheric Moisture ***Dew point refers to the temperature to which air must be cooled to become saturated ***Dew point refers to the temperature to which air must be cooled to become saturated

21. Ch 6 – Atmospheric Moisture Temperature-Dew point Spread – a very useful quantity that relates RH and dew point Temperature-Dew point Spread – a very useful quantity that relates RH and dew point –also called the dew point depression –it is the difference between the air temperature and dew point when the temperature-dew point spread is small, the RH is high when the temperature-dew point spread is small, the RH is high when the spread is very large, the RH is low; figure 6-4 when the spread is very large, the RH is low; figure 6-4

22. Ch 6 – Atmospheric Moisture Dew – a condensation product that forms when the ground or other object (such as the wings of a parked airplane) loses heat energy through night time (nocturnal) radiation Dew – a condensation product that forms when the ground or other object (such as the wings of a parked airplane) loses heat energy through night time (nocturnal) radiation

23. Ch 6 – Atmospheric Moisture White dew – if the temperature falls below 32 degrees F (0 degrees C) after dew is present, it will freeze White dew – if the temperature falls below 32 degrees F (0 degrees C) after dew is present, it will freeze

24. Ch 6 – Atmospheric Moisture ***Frost forms when the temperature of the collecting surface is at or below the dew point of the adjacent air and the dew point is below freezing ***Frost forms when the temperature of the collecting surface is at or below the dew point of the adjacent air and the dew point is below freezing –Frost is considered hazardous to flight because it spoils the smooth flow of air over the wings, thereby decreasing lifting capability

25. Ch 6 – Atmospheric Moisture Section B: Clouds - suspension of water droplets and / or ice crystals in the atmosphere Section B: Clouds - suspension of water droplets and / or ice crystals in the atmosphere –Cloud Formation - three requirements for cloud formation are water vapor, condensation nuclei and cooling –Water Vapor - cloud development requires adequate water vapor cloud formation favored in air with high RH (small temperature dew point spread) cloud formation favored in air with high RH (small temperature dew point spread)

26. Ch 6 – Atmospheric Moisture –Condensation Nuclei - Condensation Nuclei are microscopic particles such as dust and salt that provide surfaces on which water vapor undergoes condensation to form water droplets or deposition to form ice crystals fog is usually more prevalent in industrial areas because of an abundance of condensation nuclei fog is usually more prevalent in industrial areas because of an abundance of condensation nuclei

27. Ch 6 – Atmospheric Moisture ***Fog is usually more prevalent in industrial areas because of an abundance of condensation nuclei from combustion ***Fog is usually more prevalent in industrial areas because of an abundance of condensation nuclei from combustion

28. Ch 6 – Atmospheric Moisture Cooling -contact cooling, advection fog often forms in coastal areas Cooling -contact cooling, advection fog often forms in coastal areas –conditions favorable for the formation of radiation fog over a land surface are clear skies, little or no wind, and a small temperature-dew point spread –if the fog is very shallow (less than 20 feet deep) it is called ground fog –valley fog forms when radiational cooling causes cool dense air to pool in a valley –river valleys with ample supplied of moisture are favorable locations for this type of fog –rain shadow; upslope fog –the types of fog that depend on wind in order to exist are advection fog and upslope fog –steam fog is common over unfrozen water bodies in the cold months of the year

31. Ch 6 – Atmospheric Moisture ***Advection fog often forms in coastal areas ***Advection fog often forms in coastal areas ***Conditions favorable for the formation of radiation fog over a land surface are clear skies, little or no wind and a small temperature-dew point spread ***Conditions favorable for the formation of radiation fog over a land surface are clear skies, little or no wind and a small temperature-dew point spread ***The types of fog that depend upon wind in order to exist are advection fog and upslope fog ***The types of fog that depend upon wind in order to exist are advection fog and upslope fog

32. Ch 6 – Atmospheric Moisture Latent Heat and Stability -saturated adiabatic process Latent Heat and Stability -saturated adiabatic process –saturated adiabatic lapse rate (SALR) varies between 3C per 1,000 ft for very cold temperatures and 1C per 1,000 ft for very hot temperatures varies between 3C per 1,000 ft for very cold temperatures and 1C per 1,000 ft for very hot temperatures condensation level condensation level conditional instability – air parcel must become saturated in order to be unstable conditional instability – air parcel must become saturated in order to be unstable

34. Ch 6 – Atmospheric Moisture Cloud and Visibility Observations -learning to observe clouds and visibility is essential for proper interpretation of METAR and for flight safety Cloud and Visibility Observations -learning to observe clouds and visibility is essential for proper interpretation of METAR and for flight safety –Standard Cloud Observations - sky condition cloud height, cloud amount, cloud type cloud height, cloud amount, cloud type

35. Ch 6 – Atmospheric Moisture –Visibility tower visibility tower visibility prevailing visibility prevailing visibility runway visibility (RVV) runway visibility (RVV) runway visual range (RVR) runway visual range (RVR)

36. Ch 6 – Atmospheric Moisture –VFR conditions VFR: ceiling > 3,000 ft AGL and visibility > 5 sm VFR: ceiling > 3,000 ft AGL and visibility > 5 sm MVFR: ceiling 1,000 to 3,000 ft AGL and / or visibility 3 to 5 sm MVFR: ceiling 1,000 to 3,000 ft AGL and / or visibility 3 to 5 sm IFR conditions IFR conditions –IFR: ceiling 500 to < 1,000 ft AGL and/or visibility 1 to < 3 sm –LIFR: ceiling <500 feet AGL and / or visibility < 1 sm

37. Ch 6 – Atmospheric Moisture ***A ceiling is defined as the height above the earth’s surface of the lowest layer reported as broken or overcast, or as the vertical visibility into an indefinite ceiling ***A ceiling is defined as the height above the earth’s surface of the lowest layer reported as broken or overcast, or as the vertical visibility into an indefinite ceiling

39. Ch 6 – Atmospheric Moisture Cloud Type - ten basic cloud types < 6500 feet AGL Cloud Type - ten basic cloud types < 6500 feet AGL –low (ST) Stratus –(SC) Stratocumulus –(NS) Nimbostratus 6,500 to 20,000 ft AGL 6,500 to 20,000 ft AGL –Middle (AC) Altocumulus –(AS) Altostratus, High > 20,000 ft AGL –(CC) Cirrocumulus –(CS) Cirrostratus –(CI) Cirrus –Clouds with vertical development (CU) Cumulus –(CB) Cumulonimbus

40. Ch 6 – Atmospheric Moisture the four families of clouds are high, middle, low and those with extensive vertical development the four families of clouds are high, middle, low and those with extensive vertical development –a high cloud is composed mostly of ice crystals the stability of the air before lifting occurs determines the structure or type of clouds which form as a result of air being forced to ascend the stability of the air before lifting occurs determines the structure or type of clouds which form as a result of air being forced to ascend heights of cumulus cloud bases can be determined by H = (T – DP) / 4.4 heights of cumulus cloud bases can be determined by H = (T – DP) / 4.4 –Cloud Height – cloud layer, cloud height

41. Ch 6 – Atmospheric Moisture Fog Fog –vertical visibility (VV) or indefinite ceiling is the vertical distance that an observer or remote sensing device on the ground can see into a low cloud or other obscuring phenomenon –cloud height is the height of the base of the cloud above the ground –when sky is completely obscured the reported cloud height is actually the vertical visibility

43. Ch 6 – Atmospheric Moisture Cloud Amount – amount of sky covered by each cloud layer Cloud Amount – amount of sky covered by each cloud layer –celestial dome –clear (SKC) – no clouds present –clear (CLR) – no clouds below 12,000 ft AGL –few (FEW) – 1/8 to 2/8 sky cover –scattered (SCT) – 3/8 to 4/8 coverage –broken (BKN) – 5/8 to 7/8 coverage –overcast (OVC) – 8/8 coverage

45. Ch 6 – Atmospheric Moisture Obscurations and ceilings – obscuration, ceiling, indefinite ceiling, vertical visibility Obscurations and ceilings – obscuration, ceiling, indefinite ceiling, vertical visibility –a ceiling is defined as the height above the earth’s surface of the lowest layer reported as broken or overcast, or as the vertical visibility into an indefinite ceiling PIREPS pilot’s reports PIREPS pilot’s reports

46. Ch 6 – Atmospheric Moisture ***The four families of clouds are high, middle, low and those with extensive vertical development ***The four families of clouds are high, middle, low and those with extensive vertical development ***A high cloud is composed mostly of ice crystals ***A high cloud is composed mostly of ice crystals ***The stability of the air before lifting occurs determines the structure or type of clouds which form as a result of air being forced to ascend ***The stability of the air before lifting occurs determines the structure or type of clouds which form as a result of air being forced to ascend

47. Ch 6 – Atmospheric Moisture Other Useful Cloud Observations - satellite images from the Geostationary Orbiting Environmental Satellite (GOES) Other Useful Cloud Observations - satellite images from the Geostationary Orbiting Environmental Satellite (GOES)

48. Ch 6 – Atmospheric Moisture Section C: Precipitation Section C: Precipitation –Precipitation Causes condensation / deposition condensation / deposition collision / coalescence – large droplets fall faster than smaller particles capturing them as they descend collision / coalescence – large droplets fall faster than smaller particles capturing them as they descend ice crystal process ice crystal process super cooled water droplets are primary cause of aircraft icing super cooled water droplets are primary cause of aircraft icing ice crystals grow at the expense of super cooled water droplets in the ice crystal process ice crystals grow at the expense of super cooled water droplets in the ice crystal process

50. Ch 6 – Atmospheric Moisture Precipitation Characteristics Precipitation Characteristics –Types Drizzle Drizzle Rain Rain rain showers rain showers freezing drizzle freezing drizzle freezing rain freezing rain black ice black ice the presence of ice pellets at the surface is evidence that there may be freezing rain at a higher altitude the presence of ice pellets at the surface is evidence that there may be freezing rain at a higher altitude –ice pellets Snow Snow snow showers snow showers Virga Virga fall streaks fall streaks

53. Ch 6 – Atmospheric Moisture ***The presence of ice pellets at the surface is evidence that there may be freezing rain at a higher altitude ***The presence of ice pellets at the surface is evidence that there may be freezing rain at a higher altitude

54. Ch 6 – Atmospheric Moisture Intensity and Amount Intensity and Amount –drizzle or snowfall intensity and associated visibility light > ½ light > ½ moderate > ¼ but ¼ but < or = ½ Heavy < or = ¼ Heavy < or = ¼ snow depth snow depth –heavy snow warning  blizzard

56. Ch 6 – Atmospheric Moisture METAR METAR –METAR format; Figure 6-27 page 6-27 –Visibility – reported in statute miles –Present Weather –intensity symbols light (-) light (-) moderate (no sign) moderate (no sign) or heavy (+) or heavy (+) Proximity Proximity descriptor; see Figure 6-28 page 6-28; list of contractions for various weather phenomena; see Figure 6-29 page 6-29 descriptor; see Figure 6-28 page 6-28; list of contractions for various weather phenomena; see Figure 6-29 page 6-29

58. Ch 6 – Atmospheric Moisture Hydrologic Cycle Hydrologic Cycle –on and below the surface of the earth, moisture is stored as ice and snow, and as water in lakes, rivers, ground water and the oceans –water vapor removed from the earth’s surface may be transported far from its source by the wind –clouds form and produce precipitation that returns the moisture to the earth’s surface.

59. Summary You have learned some important details about H2O and its three states in the atmosphere. You have learned some important details about H2O and its three states in the atmosphere. Changes of state and the associated latent heat exchanges have important effects on cloud formation and dissipation and on atmospheric stability (Lester, 2006). Changes of state and the associated latent heat exchanges have important effects on cloud formation and dissipation and on atmospheric stability (Lester, 2006).

60. Summary You should now understand that there are important differences between the way clouds are formed and the processes by which precipitation is produced. You should now understand that there are important differences between the way clouds are formed and the processes by which precipitation is produced. On the very practical side, you should know the basic elements of cloud and precipitation observing and reporting (Lester, 2006). On the very practical side, you should know the basic elements of cloud and precipitation observing and reporting (Lester, 2006).

61. Summary Your ability to recognize the 10 basic cloud types and the types and characteristics of precipitation give you valuable observational tools which will help you evaluate the state of the atmosphere and its likely effect on flight. Your ability to recognize the 10 basic cloud types and the types and characteristics of precipitation give you valuable observational tools which will help you evaluate the state of the atmosphere and its likely effect on flight. In the next chapter, you will apply your knowledge of all of the basic physical processes gained thus far to understand how atmospheric storms and other circulations arise, and to determine their structures and future behavior (Lester, 2006). In the next chapter, you will apply your knowledge of all of the basic physical processes gained thus far to understand how atmospheric storms and other circulations arise, and to determine their structures and future behavior (Lester, 2006).